Democracy: Principles, Evolution, and Modern Challenges
Electoral Democracy
Electoral democracy is a form of political competition through elections. Key principles include:
- Popular sovereignty (demos = the people govern).
- Free, fair, and competitive elections.
- Right to vote and eligibility for public office.
Difference with autocracy: In a democracy, power is distributed and allows alternation. In an autocracy, power is monopolized.
Minimalist Theory of Democracy (Schumpeter)
Democracy is an institutional mechanism where political decisions are made through a competitive struggle for votes. Basic conditions:
- Free, fair, and equal elections.
- Broad civil liberties and access to critical information.
- Political equality between social classes.
Polyarchy (Robert Dahl)
A polyarchy is a political system close to the democratic ideal, with:
- Liberalization: Freedom for political competition and dissent.
- Participation: Inclusion of voting rights and public debate.
Types of political regimes:
- Polyarchy: High participation and liberalization.
- Competitive oligarchy: Limited competition among elites.
- Inclusive hegemony: Broad participation but no real opposition.
- Closed hegemony: No participation or competition.
Constitutional Democracy
A constitutional democracy integrates:
- Rule of law: Balance of powers and horizontal accountability.
- Limits on state power: Restriction of power to constitutional norms and values.
- Protection of fundamental rights: Guarantee of rights for citizens and minorities.
Possible relationships:
- Democracy without constitutionalism: Unlimited power of the majority (democratic despotism).
- Constitutionalism without democracy: Legality without democratic legitimacy (authoritarian legality).
Political Equality and the Welfare State
- Political equality is essential for democracy: Inequalities in employment, income, or property limit citizens’ participation and political impact.
- France: The 1958 Constitution guarantees equality and solidarity.
- Italy: The 1947 Constitution reinforces the obligation of social solidarity.
- Sweden: The 1974 Constitution prioritizes welfare as a state goal.
- Germany: The 1949 Basic Law establishes a federal social and rule-of-law state.
Democracy in Practice
Real democracy requires political equality, solid institutions, and a balance between freedom and participation. Constitutional democracies must combine legal norms with inclusive and active citizen participation.
Authoritarian states are characterized by the use of state force, media control, and political repression. Examples include military regimes in Spain, Argentina, Chile, and South Korea.
Democracy is a process that advances in stages:
- Partial liberalization: Limited political freedoms are granted.
- Democratic transition: Free and fair elections are held.
- Democratic consolidation: Democracy becomes the only accepted system, with citizen support and solid institutional mechanisms.
Defective Democracies and Hybrid Regimes
Since the 1990s, the linear model of democratization has been criticized. Many countries did not complete a democratic transition and became trapped in hybrid regimes, also called:
- Defective democracies (Merkel and Croissant): Exclusive, illiberal, delegative, or tutelary.
- Electoral authoritarianisms (Schedler): Allow elections, but without true competition.
- Competitive authoritarianisms (Levitsky and Way): Combine democratic and authoritarian elements.
- These “democracies with adjectives” feature limited freedoms and manipulated processes.
Post-Democracy
The concept of post-democracy (Crouch, 2004) describes democracies where formal institutions operate, but citizen trust in representation and fundamental rights weakens. The rise of far-right populism undermines pluralism and democratic values, polarizing society.
- Causes: The impact of neoliberalism in the 1980s and global economic crises. Increasing economic inequality and governments’ inability to respond.
- Consequences: Citizens accept the erosion of democratic norms due to ideological discourses and emotional polarization.
Democracy at Risk in Advanced Countries
Even in consolidated democracies, such as the U.S. and Europe, signs of regression are visible:
- U.S. case: During Trump’s presidency, many studies did not classify the country as a “liberal democracy.”
- Europe: The growth of far-right parties poses a threat to democracy by promoting exclusionary discourses.
- A critical example: Capitol attack in January 2021, a symbol of democratic fragility in an advanced country.
Defective Democracies and Authoritarianism
Defective democracies are more vulnerable to backsliding into authoritarianism, especially in times of crisis. During the COVID-19 pandemic, authoritarian governance increased worldwide, intensifying global polarization.
Conclusion
Democratization is neither a linear nor an irreversible process. Democracies face internal challenges such as:
- Political and social polarization.
- Economic inequality.
- Regression into disguised authoritarianism.
Post-democracy illustrates how even advanced democracies can deteriorate if their core values are not protected.
Types of Political Systems
- Democratic/Authoritarian
- Democratic/Mixed/Authoritarian
- Democratic/Authoritarian/Totalitarian
Forms of Government
- Presidential: The executive branch is independent of the legislature (e.g., United States).
- Parliamentary: The executive depends on a parliamentary majority (e.g., United Kingdom).
- Semi-presidential: A combination of presidential and parliamentary systems (e.g., France).
Electoral Systems
- Majority rule: A majoritarian system based on districts.
- Proportional representation: Seats are distributed based on the percentage of votes.
- Mixed system: A combination of majority rule and proportional representation.
Definition of Political Parties
Political parties are organized alliances that share ideologies and aim to:
- Nominate and elect candidates for public office.
- Mediate between the state and citizens.
- Express, articulate, and organize social interests.
Functions of Political Parties
- Articulation: Clarifying interests and goals of social groups.
- Organization: Structuring collective interests.
- Expression: Channeling conflicts within an institutional framework.
- Representation: Defending various interests within institutions.
- Coordination: Reconciling competing interests.
- Integration: Maintaining the stability of the political system.
Historical Evolution of Parties
- 1790-1850: Emergence of parties like the Federalists and Democratic-Republicans in the U.S.
- 1860-1920: Formation of social democratic parties in Europe (e.g., Germany’s SPD).
- Post-World War II:
- In advanced democracies: Class-based parties evolved into national parties.
- In non-Western countries: Adoption of Western party models but with clientelism and particularism.
Classification of Political Parties
- By purpose: Honorary parties, ideological parties, or parties focused on obtaining office (Max Weber).
- By electoral base: Class parties, national (catch-all) parties, or extremist parties.
- By internal structure: Leader-centered parties, cadre parties, or mass membership parties.
- By scope of activity: Parliamentary parties, extra-parliamentary parties, or party-organization-centered parties.
Party Systems
- Two-party system: Competition between two main parties (e.g., United States).
- Multi-party system: Three or more parties compete, favoring coalitions (e.g., Germany).
High political participation can lead to extreme positions that impact governance. Radicalized groups tend to dominate politics, limiting rational and balanced options for voters.
Democracy is a system based on free and fair political competition to gain power. Elections are the core of modern democracy, allowing citizens to grant or withdraw power from rulers.
Motivations for Voting:
- Interest
- Information
- Values
- Identity
- Political efficacy
- Social environment
Trends in Voter Turnout
- Hypothesis 1: Voter turnout declines consistently over time (linear trend).
- Hypothesis 2: Voter turnout shows long-term fluctuations (wave-form).
- Factors affecting turnout:
- Class and socioeconomic status: Lower turnout among the working class and less-educated voters.
- Age: Differences between generational effects and life-cycle effects.
Voters and Non-Voters
Meaning of abstention:
- Is it a renunciation of political participation?
- Is it a form of expressing discontent?
Profile of non-voters:
- Apolitical or uninterested citizens.
- Independent, non-partisan voters (Russell Dalton).
Challenges of Political Participation
- Political and ideological polarization: Competition can intensify, leading to extreme divisions.
- Over-representation of enthusiastic voters: The most passionate sectors dominate participation, distorting representativeness.
Theory of Political Cleavages (Lipset and Rokkan)
Cleavages are deep social divisions that influence political alignments, such as class, religion, or geography.
- Capital vs. Labor.
- Religion vs. State.
- Rural vs. Urban.
- Center vs. Periphery.
These structural divisions evolve and become reorganized (realignment) or dissolve (dealignment) over time.
Changes in Voting and Party Systems
Since the 2000s, divisions have become more complex:
- Generational and value-based divisions.
- Fractures based on income, assets, and gender among the youth.
Median Voter Theorem (Anthony Downs)
In majoritarian systems, parties target the median voter to secure 51% of votes. In proportional and parliamentary systems, this theorem has less influence due to coalition politics. Risk: In attempting to expand their electoral base, parties may lose support from their traditional core voters.