Democracy, Totalitarianism, and the Rise of Fascism
Democracy and Totalitarianism
1. The Crisis of Liberal Democracies
1.1. Consequences of World War I
The democratic states’ victory in WWI led to the fragmentation of empires and the birth of new countries with parliamentary systems, such as Germany, Austria, Czechoslovakia, and Hungary. Universal male suffrage was introduced in many nations. Economic hardship followed the war, with high unemployment and inflation in the early 1920s, leading to social unrest and strikes.
1.2. Democracies and the Crisis
Countries with established parliamentary systems integrated emerging socialist movements. Great Britain, facing a severe economic situation and conflict in Ireland, granted Irish independence in 1921. France experienced slower recovery, with worker protests forming the Popular Front in 1930. Switzerland, Belgium, and the Netherlands formed coalition governments, while social democracy played a key role in Nordic countries.
1.3. The Rise of Authoritarian Regimes
In countries with weaker liberal traditions, authoritarian political systems and dictatorships emerged, promising order and relying on nationalism. Hungary, Poland, Lithuania, and Portugal became dictatorships. Austria followed suit under Chancellor Dollfuss. Authoritarian regimes also spread to Latvia, Estonia, Greece, Romania, Spain, and Bulgaria. General Primo de Rivera’s coup in Spain led to a dictatorship. The most significant were the rise of Mussolini’s National Fascist Party in Italy (1922) and Hitler’s Nazi Party in Germany (1933).
What is Fascism?
Fascism, originating in Italy, is a violent, authoritarian reaction against democratic principles. Its core tenets include extreme nationalism, state exaltation, rejection of democracy, leader worship, distrust of reason, and legitimization of violence.
2. Fascist Italy
2.1. The Post-War Crisis
Post-war Italy suffered economic crisis and social unrest, compounded by frustration over the war’s results. High casualties and declining living standards led to widespread strikes and land occupations. Fear of Bolshevism fueled repression, and the constitutional monarchy remained unstable, with five different governments between 1919 and 1922. Unfulfilled promises of reclaiming irredentist lands further fueled discontent.
2.2. Formation of the National Fascist Party
In 1919, Mussolini created the Fasci di Combattimento with a nationalist and populist program. This evolved into the National Fascist Party, which presented itself as a bulwark against communism. Defending private property and promoting strong nationalism, the party attracted support from those dissatisfied with the existing order, including workers and the petty bourgeoisie. The party’s black shirts engaged in violence and intimidation to suppress opposition.
2.3. March on Rome and Mussolini’s Rise to Power
In October 1922, thousands of Blackshirts marched on Rome, demanding a Fascist government. Mussolini promised to restore order. On October 28, King Victor Emmanuel III refused to sign a state of emergency decree. The government resigned, and the King asked Mussolini to form a new government on October 30. The monarchy and army played a decisive role in bringing Fascism to power, initiating a process of restricting liberties.
2.4. The Fascist Dictatorship
From 1925, Mussolini transformed Italy into a totalitarian regime. A law appointed him head of government with dictatorial powers. In 1926, the Rocco Law banned all non-Fascist parties and unions. By 1929, parliament was replaced by the Chamber of Fasces and Corporations. A political police force persecuted opponents. The regime secured the support of the Catholic Church through the Lateran Pacts, which restored relations between the Roman Catholic Church and the Italian state. Remilitarization began, and Italy pursued expansionist policies in Europe and Africa.
2.5. Economic Dirigisme
Fascist economic policy was highly interventionist. The Institute for Industrial Reconstruction (IRI) aided struggling companies, giving the state control over key sectors. Public works projects aimed to reduce unemployment. Programs promoted agricultural production and incentivized higher birth rates. However, living standards remained low, wages fell, and unemployment rose.
2.6. Strict Social Control
Fascism aimed to control all aspects of society. Children were enrolled in Fascist youth organizations. Free time was regulated. Teachers wore black shirts, and university professors swore allegiance to the regime. Divorce was prohibited, religious education was mandatory, and motherhood and family were exalted. Media content was strictly controlled.
3. The Weimar Republic
In 1918, following Kaiser Wilhelm II’s abdication, the Weimar Republic was proclaimed in Germany. It faced the challenges of military defeat and the harsh peace terms imposed by the victors.
3.1. Weakness of the Weimar Republic
The new democratic constitution failed to create a stable political system. The Spartacist uprising of 1919 and the Kapp Putsch of 1920 highlighted the fragility of the republic. Hyperinflation in 1923 further destabilized the economy. A period of stability followed between 1924 and 1929, but the 1929 crisis exacerbated existing problems, eroding support for the Weimar coalition.
3.2. Formation of the Nazi Party
Hitler began his political career in a small extremist group called the German Workers’ Party (DAP), which later became the National Socialist German Workers’ Party (NSDAP). The party adopted similar behaviors to the Fascists, including brown shirts, the Roman salute, and the swastika symbol. They were also anti-Semitic. After a failed coup attempt in 1923, Hitler was imprisoned, where he wrote Mein Kampf, outlining his ideology. Upon release, he reorganized the party and created the SA, a paramilitary organization.
4. Nazi Germany
4.1. The Nazi Rise to Power
Economic crisis and political disarray radicalized many Germans, making them receptive to Nazi ideology. In the 1932 elections, the Nazis won a significant number of seats in the Reichstag. Hitler was appointed Chancellor in January 1933, leading a coalition government. His true intention was to transform the republic into a Nazi authoritarian state. The Nazis had support from the middle class and presented themselves as defenders against communism.
4.2. The Road to Dictatorship
In 1933, Hitler began constructing an authoritarian state. New elections were called for March 5th. The press was censored, opposition meetings were banned, and the SA spread fear. The Reichstag fire was falsely blamed on communists, allowing Hitler to suspend civil liberties and arrest opponents. He secured enabling powers from parliament, granting him full control.
4.3. Construction of a Totalitarian Regime
The Nazis transformed Germany into a totalitarian regime, controlling all institutions and individuals. Only the NSDAP was permitted. Workers were forced to join the Nazi-controlled German Labor Front. Laws allowed dismissal for racial or political reasons. The party and state became intertwined. The SA and the Gestapo, the secret police, suppressed dissent. Concentration camps were established in 1933.
4.4. Autarky and Economic Policy
The Nazis prioritized economic self-sufficiency (autarky). Industry was given priority, but results were uneven. Germany became a major industrial power, but wages remained low, and union rights were suppressed. The Nazi economic policy did not challenge capitalism but reinforced some of its features.
4.5. Ideological and Social Control
The Ministry of Culture and Propaganda ensured a culture based on Nazi ideology. Science and culture were nazified, and lists of prohibited authors were created. Book burnings became a ritual. Youth indoctrination was emphasized through the Hitler Youth. The role of women was reduced, and the church’s influence was curtailed. Communists and socialists were persecuted.
4.6. Racial Purity
The Nazis sought to ensure Aryan racial purity. They promoted the birth of Aryan children and persecuted those deemed physically or mentally disabled. The persecution of Jews escalated in stages. A boycott of Jewish businesses was implemented in 1933. The Nuremberg Laws of 1935 forbade intermarriage and stripped Jews of citizenship. Kristallnacht in 1938 saw widespread violence against Jews, their businesses, and synagogues.
4.7. Territorial Expansion
Nazi foreign policy was driven by expansionism. Hitler rejected the Treaty of Versailles and aimed to create a Greater German Reich. This involved conquering and enslaving those deemed inferior, including Russians and Jews. Italy and Japan pursued expansion in areas that did not directly compete with German interests, allowing for cooperation and the pursuit of European domination.