Descartes and Modernity: Philosophy, Politics, and Culture
Historical and Cultural Context of Descartes
Historical-Cultural Context: The philosopher René Descartes (1596-1650) is considered the father of modern philosophy and the initiator of Rationalism. His seminal work, *Discourse on Method* (1637), comprises six parts and was published alongside *Dioptrics, Meteors, and Geometry*. In *Discourse on Method*, Descartes proposes to establish the foundations of his philosophy, first by defining a method and its rules, and then by applying it to the search for metaphysical and physical truths. It is written in an autobiographical style and in French. Other significant works include *Rules for the Direction of the Mind* and *Meditations on First Philosophy*.
Political Transformations of Modernity
Politically, modernity was a time of crisis, riots, and civil and religious wars. European religious unity was shattered in the 16th century with the Protestant Reformation. The Reformation emphasized the role of individual reason and diminished the authority of the Pope. The Catholic Church responded with the Counter-Reformation and the Inquisition. Religious conflicts between Protestants and Catholics culminated in the Thirty Years’ War (in which Descartes participated). The consequences of this war included the weakening of major powers (Spain and Germany), the strengthening of France and England, a 30% demographic decline due to famines and epidemics, the birth of independent states, and the establishment of absolute monarchy (Louis XIV, “the Sun King,” in France).
Economic and Social Shifts
Economically, mercantilism flourished, leading monarchies to undertake colonial expansion in America, Africa, and elsewhere to open new markets. This marked a transition from feudalism, based on land exploitation, to capitalism, based on trade and industry. Social discontent caused by the burgeoning bourgeoisie led to revolutions that demanded individual rights and citizen participation in public affairs.
Cultural Manifestations: The Baroque
Culturally, the Baroque was the dominant artistic movement of the time. Characterized by excess and exuberance (Rubens’s paintings are a prime example), pessimism, change, and transience, contemporary works frequently featured themes of the threatening presence of death and the illusory nature of life, as seen in Calderón de la Barca’s play *Life is a Dream* (a theme also present in Cartesian doubt). Architecture, particularly palaces and churches, showcased excessive and luxurious decor that served to exalt the power of monarchs or religious faith.
Philosophical Shifts in the 17th Century
Philosophy: The changes brought about by Renaissance Humanism extended into the 17th century. The autonomy of reason from the authority of faith was proclaimed. The new science (Copernicus, Kepler, Galileo) dismantled the Aristotelian conception of the universe and propelled a new scientific method based on the mathematical formulation of physical laws.
The Epistemological Turn
Coinciding with these changes, there was a recasting of philosophy: an epistemological turn. Philosophy would no longer begin with ontology, but with a theory of knowledge, prioritizing the subject over the object. The two great currents of modernity are Rationalism and Empiricism, which hold opposing views regarding knowledge.
Rationalism vs. Empiricism
While Rationalism places the criterion of truth in reason and constructs knowledge deductively from innate ideas, Empiricism locates the criterion of truth in experience, denies innate ideas, and advocates for an inductive method of knowledge acquisition. Skepticism was also prevalent during this time, resulting from the existing crisis and uncertainty (the collapse of Aristotelian science and Scholastic philosophy). Notable skeptics in France included Montaigne and Pierre Charron. Cartesianism emerged as an attempt to overcome the skepticism of the time by seeking absolute, “infallible” truths.