Descartes, Locke, and Hume: 17th & 18th Century Europe
Descartes: Historical and Philosophical Context
Historical Context
The rise of England, France, and Holland coincided with the decline of Italy and Spain. This period saw numerous wars of religion, most notably the clash between the emerging Protestant bourgeoisie and the traditionalist Catholic feudal nobility.
The Thirty Years’ War (1618-1648):
- Began with the Bohemian Revolt of the Calvinists.
- Involved interventions from Denmark, Sweden, and France.
Sociocultural Context
This era witnessed the flourishing of Spanish Baroque art and literature, with prominent figures such as:
- Painting: Velázquez, Zurbarán, Murillo
- Literature: Cervantes, Lope de Vega, Quevedo
It was a time of transition towards modernity, marked by a growing trust in human capabilities, the autonomy of reason, and the use of mathematics as a method of rational inquiry.
Philosophical Context
The dominant philosophical paradigm was modernity, characterized by a mechanistic view of the world. Bodies were seen as machines, with changes driven by efficient causes, and a focus on the quantitative.
Rationalism, championed by Descartes and Spinoza, emphasized the innateness of some ideas and the use of mathematical methods. It stood in contrast to scholasticism and earlier forms of mechanism.
Locke: Historical and Sociocultural Context
Historical Context
England experienced a significant Civil War, a conflict between absolute monarchy and constitutional monarchy. In 1649, Cromwell established the Republic. This was followed by the restoration of the monarchy, where the monarch’s power was believed to derive from God. In contrast, the bourgeoisie argued that the legitimacy of political power stemmed from a social contract.
The Glorious Revolution led to a parliamentary monarchy, a declaration of rights, and free elections.
Sociocultural Context
Before the Enlightenment, two primary worldviews existed:
- Traditional: Conservative and Catholic
- Modern: Protestant and anti-Catholic
Religious wars, such as the Thirty Years’ War, were prevalent. Despite a decline in political power, Spain experienced a golden age of Baroque art and literature, featuring artists like Velázquez, Zurbarán, and Ribera, and writers like Cervantes, Lope de Vega, and Quevedo.
Hume: Historical, Sociocultural, and Philosophical Context
Historical Context
England emerged as the leading economic, industrial, and capitalist power. This was facilitated by a bourgeois revolution, a parliamentary monarchy, and the establishment of political, religious, and economic freedoms.
In pre-revolutionary France, enlightened despotism prevailed, with a growing influence of deism and atheism.
Sociocultural Context
The Scottish, English, and French Enlightenment emphasized trust in critical reason, education, and the progress of humanity. Key figures included:
- Scotland: Hume
- England: Locke, Bentham, James Mill
- France: Montesquieu, Voltaire
Economic liberalism gained traction, with Adam Smith highlighting private property as a fundamental right. This period also marked the beginning of the Industrial Revolution, spurred by innovations like James Watt’s steam engine.
Philosophical Context
Several philosophical schools of thought were prominent:
- Rationalism: Descartes, Leibniz, etc., emphasized innate ideas, mathematical reasoning, deductive methods, and metaphysical speculation.
- British Empiricism: Locke, Hume, etc., argued that all ideas originate from experience, favored inductive reasoning and the experimental method, and denied the validity of metaphysics.
- Utilitarianism
- Emotivism: Hume proposed that moral judgments are based on moral sense rather than reason.