Descartes’ Method: Unveiling the First Truth
Introduction: This is an excerpt from the second part of the “Discourse on Method” by René Descartes. The subject of the text is methodological doubt, leading to the first truth. Descartes, a pivotal philosopher in Western thought, inaugurated rationalism in the 17th century, a philosophical school contrasting with the empiricism of the Middle Ages. Descartes was well aware of Scholasticism, the subordination of reason to faith, and the limitations of reason. With rationalism, reason becomes autonomous and reaches truth independently. It only requires an appropriate method applicable to all areas of knowledge. The objective of Cartesian philosophy is to seek a purely rational foundation to guide the quest for truth. The method must follow specific steps to arrive at truth more easily. Through this method, indubitable truths will be established, and everything susceptible to doubt will be rejected.
The Four Steps of the Cartesian Method
- Evidence: Accept as true only what is clear and distinct (through intuition).
- Analysis: Break down complex problems into simpler elements.
- Synthesis: Deductively reconstruct the complex from the simple.
- Verification: Review all steps to ensure nothing has been omitted.
Descartes applied this method to philosophy, aiming to rebuild the edifice of knowledge from the ground up, reaching a single undeniable truth and rejecting all unsubstantiated beliefs and ideas. He questioned mathematics, the world, and the senses. This stage represents the analysis phase. He questioned mathematics through the “evil genius” argument, suggesting a malevolent entity might deceive us. He questioned the world through the “dream argument,” positing that dreams can be so vivid that we might be dreaming our reality. He questioned the senses through the “fallacy of the senses” argument, acknowledging that our senses sometimes deceive us, though not necessarily all the time. By rejecting everything susceptible to doubt, Descartes arrived at his first truth.
Cogito Ergo Sum: The First Truth
He realized that the very act of doubting confirmed his existence: “I think, therefore I am,” or in Latin, “Cogito ergo sum.” This first truth, the self, is a clear and distinct truth even the most skeptical cannot deny. Descartes is not a skeptic; this is a fundamental truth. This stage represents the synthesis phase, where the foundation “I think, therefore I am” will be used to construct the edifice of knowledge. The author establishes a standard of certainty: accepting as true only what is clear and distinct. From this first truth, he must demonstrate the existence of extra-mental ideas. He thus examines adventitious, factitious, and innate ideas.
Types of Ideas
- Adventitious: These seem to originate from external experience, such as the idea of a man, a tree, or colors. (These are not used initially because the existence of the world is not yet proven).
- Factitious: These are constructed by the mind from other ideas, such as a winged horse. These are not useful because they are mental constructs (not extra-mental).
- Innate: These are inherent to thought itself, primitive ideas from which to build the edifice of knowledge, such as the idea of thought or existence.
The Existence of God
Descartes affirms the existence of God from the first truth. He also demonstrates God’s existence through two arguments: St. Anselm’s ontological argument and the argument of causality. The ontological argument states that a perfect being must exist; therefore, God, being perfect, must exist. In the “Discourse on Method,” Descartes uses the analogy of a triangle: just as a triangle must have three sides, God, to be God, must be perfect and exist. The argument of causality posits that the idea of an infinitely good, omniscient, and perfect God cannot originate from us, as we are imperfect, and the perfect cannot come from the imperfect. Therefore, God must have instilled in us the idea of perfection.