Descartes’ Philosophy and 17th Century Rationalism
Tourism in Spain: Economic and Cultural Benefits
In my opinion, yes. Because in our country there are many beaches and monuments, plenty to see, and tourism revenues are much in our favor because it gives us lots of money. Besides, tourism employs many people because they expand hotels and bars. With more tourism, we also learn from the culture of those who come, such as their language, so they feel more comfortable and want to return. In short, I believe that it is important to attract tourists because that would grow the economy and culture of Spain.
Empiricism: knowledge proceeds from sensitive experience.
The Method of Descartes: Cartesian Theory
The basic aim of Descartes’ philosophy is to build a true and rigorous system across all fields of human knowledge. He believed that knowledge is one, encompassing metaphysics; therefore, it is necessary to establish a sound foundation. He compares this project with a tree whose root is metaphysics, the trunk is physics, and the branches are mechanics, medicine, and morality.
Parting from a critical approach to scholastic philosophy, he rejects authority, relying only on reason and modeling his approach on mathematics for its certainty and evidence. He seeks a sound principle, an obvious truth from which to build his philosophy through reason.
To reach his goal, he creates a method that consists of four rules:
Rule of Evidence
Do not accept as true anything that is not clear and distinct, preventing assumptions. Cleanse your mind to grasp the truth intuitively.Rule of Analysis
Break down complex problems into simple elements that can be known by intuition.Rule of Synthesis
Restructure the decomposed problem in an orderly manner, showing how ideas are linked and derived from each other. This process is called deduction.Rule of Enumeration
Conduct general reviews to control the deductions made and the contents stored in memory, ensuring a comprehensive overview of the problem.
The Process of Doubt
The first rule of Descartes’ method requires eliminating everything that is not absolutely clear. To achieve this, Descartes establishes the process of doubt.
In this process:
- He analyzes and critiques the principles or reasons underlying our knowledge and beliefs.
- He seeks a solid truth that resists this questioning, which can be the basis of his philosophy.
- This doubt is a methodical, hypothetical questioning, a voluntary path to certainty.
The process of doubt involves four levels:
Reason for Doubt: The Senses
Our senses have fooled us before; we cannot fully trust them. He doubts the qualities of material bodies.Reason for Doubt: Dreams
We cannot always distinguish dreams from waking. He doubts the existence of material bodies, including his own.Reason for Doubt: Deceiving God
A metaphysical reason: God might have made us so that we are always mistaken. He doubts all scientific knowledge.Reason for Doubt: The Evil Genius
An invented, powerful entity that could be deceiving us forever. This radicalizes the doubt and supersedes any prejudice.
Socio-Historical Context
The seventeenth century marks the transition from an aristocratic society to a new bourgeois society, driven by the capitalist mode of production. This transition involves moving from a conception of being based on theology and authority to interpreting reality through autonomous rational thought. The new science and philosophy express this complex transformation.
Economically, the seventeenth century is characterized by a global crisis. This resulted in political and economic stagnation for the Spanish Empire and German states, and trade wars that shifted economic power from the Mediterranean to northwestern Europe, with the Netherlands achieving commercial supremacy.
Politically, the seventeenth century saw a reorganization of states into two models:
Absolutist Model
Represented in France by Louis XIV.Liberal Model
Represented by England and Holland.
This sociopolitical landscape fostered intellectual freedom and the emergence of autonomous researchers who built the new science. In this context, Descartes initiated modern philosophy.
Characteristics of Rationality
Rationalism, along with empiricism, is a major philosophical movement of seventeenth-century Europe.
In both movements, reason is synonymous with objectivity, impartiality, and intelligibility. However, rationalism emphasizes a mathematical, theoretical reason, while empiricism focuses on practical, empirical reason.
The main themes of Rationalism are God, soul, and world.
Descartes is the initiator, along with Malebranche, Spinoza, and Leibniz. He turns to St. Augustine, seeking a more intimate and personal God.
The scientific method is applied to philosophy, resulting in a rational approach that virtually eliminates reliance on experience.
In knowledge, the only valid source and origin of concepts is reason. Knowledge is achieved by direct rational insight, clear and distinct, followed by deduction. The senses are deceptive and lose value. Ideas are innate, received directly by the understanding. God guarantees the real value of knowledge.
Knowledge becomes the main theme, and the method is everyone’s concern.
In logic, evidence, not similarity or analogy as in Aristotle, is the basis for reasoning.
The subject, ‘I’, is the starting point and focus of philosophical analysis.
In ontology (the study of being), reality is substantial. (Aristotle)