Descartes’ Philosophy: Key Concepts and Terms
Algebra
Algebra is a part of mathematics in which numbers are substituted for letters that are related by means of the basic operations of arithmetic. It is much more potent than arithmetic.
Thinking Substance
The thinking substance is one of the parts composing the social property of the human being. This thought is contained in two general modes: perception (to conceive, imagine, feel) and determination (to desire, hate, say, deny).
Analysis
In Descartes, it can be understood in two ways: as thought and as part of the mathematical process. As a process, thought consists in the decomposition of a problem into simpler parts, and the second rule constitutes the method. In mathematics, the method refers to that used by the Greeks to study diverse geometrical relations.
Art
Art means virtue or to produce something. It can be manual or intellectual. In the Middle Ages, it was synonymous with knowledge.
Chain of Reasons
A deductive process followed in mathematical reasoning. All the truths obtained are driven from clear principles. These evident truths are gradually deduced, forming a chain of reasons in which each one acts as the next.
Certainty
The state of firm knowledge of the mind that ensures the truth. It differs from truth in that certainty is subjective. It is characterized by clarity and distinction. There are two types: metaphysical certainty (absolute) and moral certainty (probable).
Science
A mode by means of which one formulates, in a rigorous language, knowledge, laws, and propositions. Descartes considered mathematics as a model of science, and his ideal was deductive knowledge.
Circumspection
Prudence in circumstances to address them with moderation. Strictly speaking, it means meticulously analyzing the elements involved in a problem.
Clear
Clear is that knowledge present and manifest to an attentive spirit, just as we see clearly the objects when they act strongly enough and our eyes are disposed to look at them.
Confusion
The opposite of distinct. It applies to all knowledge that is not perfectly defined or delimited.
Knowledge
To know is to ascertain, by means of the understanding, the nature of things.
Mode
That which can be divided indefinitely; the first admits infinite divisibility.
Thing (Res)
Everything that has a corporeal or spiritual entity and substance. It is identified with something.
Extended Thing
In Descartes, it is reduced to extension, that is, that which can be measured and expressed geometrically.
Belief, to Believe
To believe is to accept something that is not certain or demonstrated. Belief is the assent to something without proof.
Extended Body
An object that is characterized by three principal dimensions: length, height, and depth. The body is the first extended substance, one of the parts that, together with the soul, compose the same.
Deduce, Deduction
Deduction is a type of reasoning that starts from premises, which, if true, the conclusion must also be true.
Demonstration
The argumentation by means of which a conclusion is obtained from true premises.
Distinction, Different From
Different is that knowledge in a manner different from the others, in which only if it is understood, it manifests itself distinctly to those who consider it precisely.
God
God is infinite substance. In Cartesian philosophy, God is viewed from a purely rational perspective. Thus, Descartes describes God’s attributes with those of nature: infinity, eternity, immutability. God fulfills two functions: He ensures the real existence of the world and the truth of our knowledge.
Doubt/To Doubt
Hesitation, doubt, irresolution. Doubt is the whole of a belief or beliefs. It can be of three types: vital (doubt that arises frequently when we have to choose between various alternatives), methodical (a procedure to reach the truth), and Cartesian (methodical doubt).
Understanding
The faculty of knowledge. It is merely passive because it perceives the objects that are presented to it, and it can be finite because there are many objects.
Error
An erroneous concept or false judgment. It is not in the judgment itself, but in the act in which it is pronounced on the judgment. The responsibility for the error lies in the will.
Skeptic
One who considers that there is no firm knowledge or anything certain. The subject can never capture or grasp the object in a relative and changing way.
Spirit
It is opposed to matter. Spirit designates not the first, but the nature that relates to material terms. It has a more dynamic meaning than “soul”.
Evidence
Truth apprehended through the simple inspection of the mind. It is equivalent to intuition. It refers to something that is presented immediately to the mind. Descartes’ evidence is intellectual, not empirical.
Exist
It refers to that which is real. It is opposed to essence. While essence is a universal definition that can be expressed in a proposition, existence is something concrete.
Extension
The capacity to occupy a part of space. Given that space is qualitatively uniform, when we say that something is extended, it can be divided into qualitatively equal parts. Extension is the main attribute of extended substance.
Jaundice
A disease produced by the accumulation of bile pigments in the blood, giving a yellowish color to the skin.
Idea
When the mind thinks, it thinks ideas. They can be considered from two aspects: as acts or contents of the mind (these are more important because they are clear and distinct).
Illusion
An image or representation that lacks a real basis. It comes from the imagination produced by a deception of the senses.
Imagination
The mental power that is characterized by the production of conscious images. To imagine is a mode of thought, along with feeling or conceiving.
Infinity
That which cannot be understood in two ways: as potential infinite (applied to that which extends indefinitely, with each of its parts limited, finite) or actual infinite (absolute, has no limits on its current perfections). Actual infinite applies to God and potential infinite to the world.
Judgment
The mental process by which we consciously decide that something is one way or another.
Law
A rule or principle generally accepted by all who profess a science or knowledge.
Nature
That which makes a thing what it is, that by which a thing has its own character.
Intelligent Nature
Refers to a test substance for the two that make up man, thinking substance (soul) or extended substance (body).
Concept
An idea or concept of something normally having a basic character.
Opinion
Views on a judgment or something questionable or debatable. Neither knowledge nor ignorance.
Think
According to Descartes, “to understand everything that happens in us so that we immediately realize it.” Descartes refers to all conscious mental activity of the subject. Thinking is the main attribute of thinking substance.
Perfection
Perfect means that it is finished and completed so that nothing is lacking. The best of its kind because there is nothing that can surpass it.