Dictatorship of Primo de Rivera (1923-1930): Causes, Organization, and Downfall
The Dictatorship of Primo de Rivera (1923-1930)
Causes of the Military Coup
Primo de Rivera’s coup received support from sectors that viewed it as a solution to the political crisis and social unrest. Several factors contributed to this perspective:
- Instability and political deadlock of the parliamentary system, discredited by continuous electoral fraud.
- Fear of a social revolution due to rising worker and peasant unrest.
- Increased influence of peripheral nationalism and republicanism.
- Discontent within the army after the Disaster of Annual.
- Primo de Rivera’s desire to avoid accountability for the war in Morocco.
In his opening manifesto, Primo de Rivera declared his intent to cleanse the country of corrupt politicians, end social indiscipline, and address threats to national unity. The unconstitutional dictatorship aimed to halt potential reforms that threatened certain interests.
State Reorganization
The dictatorship unfolded in two phases. Initially, the Military Directory ruled until 1925. Later, civilian ministers like Jose Calvo Sotelo joined the government, forming the Civil Directory. Despite this, the military’s influence remained significant, and the regime’s authoritarian nature persisted.
The Directory’s first actions showcased its dictatorial character: suspension of the constitution, dissolution of legislative chambers, suppression of political parties and trade unions, militarization of public order, and repression of the working class. Municipalities were dissolved and replaced by appointed boards.
The promised regeneration proved illusory, as electoral mechanisms were suspended, and political renewal was limited. Initially, the dictatorship focused on the conflict in Morocco. Primo de Rivera, as High Commissioner, orchestrated the successful Alhucemas landing in 1925, with French collaboration. By 1927, Spanish troops withdrew from Morocco.
In 1926, Primo de Rivera attempted to institutionalize his regime, drawing inspiration from Italian fascism. He established the National Advisory Assemblies (1927), abandoning universal suffrage. To bolster support, he created the Patriotic Union, a government party without a defined ideology, tasked with supporting the dictatorship. He also reactivated the somaten to maintain public order.
Economic and Social Policies
The dictatorship benefited from a favorable international economic climate. The regime initiated infrastructure projects and promoted state intervention in the economy, nationalizing key sectors. Public works were prioritized, and a decree protected domestic industry. Monopolies, like the National Telephone Company of Spain, were granted. These initiatives were financed through Extraordinary Budgets, masking the accumulating national debt. Agriculture remained dominated by large landowners, without any reforms.
Socially, the dictatorship implemented a labor regulation model aimed at resolving disputes through state intervention, integrating moderate labor movements, and repressing more radical organizations. The National Corporate Organization grouped employers and workers, regulating disputes through joint committees. Its mission was to regulate wages, working conditions, and mediate conflicts.
Opposition to the Dictatorship
Established parties criticized the regime’s duration, and some military leaders engaged in conspiracies. The dictatorship imposed strict control over intellectuals and academia through censorship and restrictions on university freedoms, leading to student protests and the formation of the Federación Universitaria Española (FUE). Figures like Unamuno and Blasco Ibáñez led the opposition.
Conflict arose with nationalists and republicans, particularly in Catalonia. Republicans formed the Republican Alliance, conducting propaganda campaigns abroad. Primo de Rivera’s policies were perceived as anti-Catalan, alienating even those initially sympathetic to the regime.
The CNT opposed the regime and faced persecution, leading to internal divisions between radical factions (FAI) and those advocating more moderate approaches. The PSOE also rejected the regime and favored a republic.
The Downfall of Primo de Rivera
Growing opposition intensified when King Alfonso XIII and his advisors realized the dictatorship threatened the monarchy. The king withdrew his support, and Primo de Rivera resigned on January 30, 1930. General Berenguer was tasked with organizing elections to restore constitutional normalcy.
The opposition, including Republicans, Galician and Catalan nationalists, the PSOE, and the left, signed the Pact of San Sebastian, outlining a joint program for the elections and forming a revolutionary committee to serve as the provisional government of a future Republic. Berenguer’s failure to prepare elections led to his replacement by Admiral Aznar. The government called for municipal elections, deemed less threatening to the monarchy. These elections became a referendum on the monarchy, marking a turning point in Spanish history.