Dictatorship of Primo de Rivera (1923-1930): Overview and Analysis
The Dictatorship of Miguel Primo de Rivera (1923-1930)
Introduction
The long crisis of the Canovist system was unexpectedly resolved by the coup of Primo de Rivera, promising reform and regeneration, and accepted by the monarch. This coup transformed into a dictatorship that fostered economic development and maintained social peace, at the cost of suspending the Constitution, banning political activity, and controlling the press. The final attempt to establish a corporatist state supported by a single party failed, leaving Spain facing the same dilemmas as before the coup. Primo de Rivera’s authoritarian military regime aimed to solve Spain’s serious problems from the perspective of military regeneracionismo, presenting itself as an “iron surgeon” for a maximum of 90 days. The crisis of the Restoration, beginning with the Generation of ’98 and a wave of regeneracionismo, continued through crises in 1909, 1917, and 1921. This dictatorship holds great significance as a precursor to Franco’s dictatorship, with many of Primo’s principles and mistakes informing Franco’s later rule.
The Coup
Crisis of 1917 and Sequence of Events
In the summer of 1923, the African military, led by Miguel Primo de Rivera, Captain General of Catalonia (along with other generals like Sanjurjo), prepared a coup to establish a “strong government.” The uprising on September 13, 1923, from Barcelona, aimed to dismantle the Restoration parties and suspend the parliamentary system without altering the socio-economic base of landowners and industrialists. The coup received support from the gentry, landowners, much of the middle classes, the army, and the king himself, while socialists remained neutral. The result was a swift victory with little resistance from trade unions and Republicans. King Alfonso XIII directed Primo de Rivera to form a military government.
Justification for the Coup
The coup’s manifesto aimed to end “political banditry” (the blocked and discredited constitutional regime), “social indiscipline” (labor movement and social protest), and threats to national unity. The key question remained: would this prevent an outdated system from democratizing?
Causes of the Coup
The immediate cause was the impact of the Annual Disaster. The army demanded political change, with increased budgets and resources to address the war in Morocco. Public opinion was indignant and opposed to the continuation of the war.
Stages of the Dictatorship
The dictatorship unfolded in two stages:
3.1 Military Directory (1923-1925)
This transitional phase aimed to solve immediate problems (like the disappearance of the caciques) and “put Spain in order” before returning to civilian government. Primo de Rivera served as the sole minister, advised by a Military Advisory Board (nine generals and an admiral) and related civil servants.
Key Measures
- Suspension of the 1876 Constitution
- Dissolution of Parliament and suspension of constitutional guarantees
- Prohibition of political parties and unions
- Militarization of public order
- Repression of radical workers (CNT and communists)
- State Nationalism: Prohibition of languages other than Spanish and symbols other than the Spanish flag and anthem
- Dissolution of provincial councils and the Commonwealth of Catalonia
- Reform of local government
Successes: Alhucemas Landing
Initially defeatist, Primo de Rivera faced rejection from Africanists like Sanjurjo, Queipo de Llano, and leaders of the Legion like Millán Astray and Franco. From 1925, cooperation with France (due to Abd-el-Krim’s occupation of French territory) led to the coordinated Alhucemas landing in 1925. This marked the end of resistance in the Rif, with Abd-el-Krim surrendering to the French in 1926. By 1927, Spain effectively concluded the occupation of the Protectorate.
3.2 Civil Directory (1925-1930)
The Constitution and constitutional rights remained suspended. The objectives were the institutionalization of the regime, corporatism (rejecting individual action), and economic nationalism (promoting domestic production and the domestic market).
Policy Measures
- Creation of a single party: the Patriotic Union
- Establishment of a single union: the National Corporate Organization
- Formation of the National Consultative Assembly (a parliament without legislative power) to draft a new constitution (which was never created)
- Division of the Canary Islands into two provinces in 1927
Economic Policy
- Development of domestic production
- Promotion of public works (railways, roads, waterworks)
- Protection of domestic industry (heavy industry and mining)
- Granting of monopolies (e.g., Telefónica in 1924, Campsa in 1927)
Social Policy
[Further details on social policy are needed to complete this section.]