Durkheim’s Sociological Theories: An Analysis
Durkheim and Rejection of Analytic Individualism
Durkheim understood that society is not merely a reflection of individual actions. He rejected analytical individualism and idealism, focusing on the practical constraints of industrial society. Social life, according to Durkheim, comprises shared beliefs, practices, and customs—binding norms and conventions that define a group’s existence. He emphasized that the group’s individuality, not its individual members, determines social facts.
Durkheim broke with positivism’s static view of society. While passions and selfish tendencies originate in individuals, rational activity stems from social causes imposed by the collective consciousness.
Anomie and Division of Labor
Durkheim disagreed with biological positivists, explaining social norms as a product of the dialectic between individuals and society. He observed that in societies with an “imposed” division of labor, moral authority is only effective when aligned with individuals’ real situations. In contrast, restorative law, characterized by sanctions and atonement, emerges in societies with organic solidarity, where specialization leads to individual interests and a decline in the collective consciousness.
This tension between individual and collective interests can cause anomie. Organic solidarity requires individual spheres of action, but anomie arises when the collective consciousness fails to regulate individual appetites or when the “cult of the individual” exceeds what’s necessary for specialized roles. Anomie and egoism diminish when the division of labor is “spontaneous” rather than “imposed,” aligning social inequalities with natural ones.
The Normal and the Pathological
Durkheim viewed crime as a regular, normal social fact, linked to the collective consciousness. Public morality evolves with changes in social relations. The offender, like Socrates, can be a precursor to new ideas. High crime rates indicate outdated social control systems.
Durkheim argued against biological determinism in occupational choices. Dissatisfaction with an “imposed” division of labor leads to deviance. He identified three types of deviants:
- Biological deviants: influenced by genetics and situational factors.
- Functional rebels: those who challenge the imposed division of labor.
- Distorted deviants: poorly socialized individuals in a sick society, caused by anomie and egoism.
Anomie signifies a lack of regulation and weak collective consciousness, while egoism is the institutionalized “cult of the individual.” In imperfect industrial societies, deviance is primarily social. However, Durkheim saw individualism as healthy when it allows freedom within the division of labor. Certain deviants can be functional by challenging the prevailing moral atmosphere.
Durkheim believed inherited wealth is problematic, advocating for a meritocracy where social inequalities reflect natural ones. He acknowledged that aspirations and skills are socially shaped, justifying class conflict when it restores justice.