Early 20th Century Russia: Revolution and the Rise of the USSR
Russia in the Early 20th Century
At the dawn of the 20th century, Russia was a major world power due to its size and population. However, over 80% of its population were peasants. Serfdom had been abolished by Tsar Alexander II in 1861. A period of rapid industrialization occurred between 1880 and 1890. This industrial boom led to the rise of capitalism and the formation of a proletariat that began to fight for better living and working conditions, often using strikes as a key tactic.
Various opposition movements emerged, guided by different ideologies, all seeking to end the feudal structure and the Tsar’s autocratic power. The presence of an industrial proletariat, organized in strikes, favored the spread of anarchist and socialist ideas.
Opposition groups formed along different ideological and social lines:
- Constitutional Democratic Party: Representing the middle classes in cities, they favored establishing a parliamentary monarchy.
- Social Democratic Party: Agglutinated the discontent of rural peasants who desired access to land ownership.
- Russian Social Democratic Labour Party (RSDLP): Founded in 1898, it comprised industrial workers and radical intellectuals, influenced by Marxist ideas. In 1903, the party split into two factions: the Bolsheviks (majority) and the Mensheviks (minority).
Mensheviks: Following Marx, they believed a bourgeois revolution had to precede a proletarian revolution in Russia. They collaborated with the Democrats to overthrow the Tsar and establish a Western-style democracy.
Bolsheviks: Led by Lenin, they advocated for a direct transition from a pre-capitalist to a socialist society, opposing any alliance with the bourgeoisie. Lenin’s key theses, proposed at the RSDLP’s Second Congress, included:
- Dictatorship of the Proletariat: A necessary instrument of the revolution to achieve socialism.
- Alliance of the Working Class and Peasantry: To overthrow the Tsarist autocracy.
- Liquidation of Landowners and Redistribution of Land to Peasants: Recognizing the right to self-determination for oppressed nations within Russia.
- Need for a Centralized Party: Based on democratic centralism, with professional revolutionaries ensuring ideological and organizational unity.
The 1905 Revolution
Growing social discontent against Tsar Nicholas II’s government, aggravated by the Russo-Japanese War over colonial territories in Manchuria and Korea, exposed Russia’s weaknesses. In 1905, a peaceful demonstration on January 22nd in St. Petersburg, requesting reforms from the Tsar, was met with violence, resulting in numerous deaths and widespread indignation. Strikes and violence spread across Russia. The Tsar, forced to concede, agreed to establish a Duma (legislative assembly). However, Nicholas II later dissolved the First Duma, preventing liberal reforms.
Russia and World War I
At the outbreak of World War I, the Bolsheviks, aligned with internationalist social democrats in Europe, opposed the war, viewing it as imperialist. The Mensheviks were divided, with some remaining internationalist while others supported the war effort.
The 1917 Revolutions
Tsarist autocracy and Russia’s defeats in World War I led to widespread strikes and riots. Soviets, or councils, of workers and soldiers emerged.
February Revolution: A revolt of workers and soldiers in St. Petersburg forced the Tsar to abdicate. A Provisional Government, led by bourgeois parties from the Duma, was established.
Provisional Government: Led by Kerensky from March 1917, the Provisional Government aimed to implement a democratic regime similar to Western European democracies. Key decisions included continuing the war alongside the Allies and adopting democratic reforms. However, military failures and unmet promises inclined many Russians towards the Bolsheviks.
October Revolution: The Bolsheviks, led by Lenin and Trotsky, seized power, overthrowing the Provisional Government with the help of the Red Guard and sailors of the Baltic Fleet. They stormed the Winter Palace, arrested the Provisional Government, and proclaimed the dictatorship of the proletariat.
In January 1918, Lenin dissolved the Constituent Assembly, viewing it as a representation of bourgeois democracy. The Bolsheviks consolidated power, establishing the pillars of the socialist revolution. In March 1918, Trotsky signed the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk with Germany, ceding territories including Finland, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Poland, Ukraine, Batum, and Kars. Following the revolution, the Bolshevik faction became the Russian Communist Party, later the Communist Party of the Soviet Union.
The Russian Civil War
The Bolshevik revolution faced opposition from various groups, including Tsarist loyalists, who formed the White Army and received support from foreign powers seeking to contain the spread of communism. The brutal civil war lasted from 1918 to 1921, causing widespread famine and death. The Red Army eventually prevailed, regaining control of central Russia.
Creation of the USSR
In 1922, the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR) was formed, comprising Russia, Ukraine, Belarus, Transcaucasia, and Central Asian republics. The USSR was a one-party state, with the Communist Party of the Soviet Union (CPSU) holding total power. The system was a totalitarian dictatorship of the proletariat.
The Stalinist Period
After Lenin’s death in 1924, a power struggle ensued between Trotsky and Stalin. Trotsky advocated for world revolution, while Stalin focused on consolidating power within the USSR. Stalin’s vision prevailed, and he implemented policies to transform the USSR into a major industrial power. Key aspects of Stalin’s rule included:
- Collectivization: Land, factories, and banks were brought under state control. Land was organized into collective farms.
- Industrialization: Focus on heavy industries like steel, mining, and chemicals.
- Centralized Economic Planning: Five-Year Plans (1928-1932, 1933-1937, 1937-1942) dictated production targets.
The CPSU controlled all aspects of life, with Stalin establishing a personal dictatorship. Dissent was suppressed through purges, imprisonments, and deportations. Cities grew, and the USSR became a major economic and global power.
World War I (Additional Information)
The peace in Europe was fragile. Tensions between the great powers led to an arms race. Germany and Great Britain competed for naval dominance, and other powers prepared for war. For example, France increased its conscription period from two to three years.
US Involvement: In March 1917, Germany’s unrestricted submarine warfare had a significant impact on American public opinion. The interception of the Zimmermann Telegram, in which Germany attempted to incite Mexico against the US, led to the US entering the war on April 2, 1917.
1918: Germany’s situation deteriorated, and Kaiser Wilhelm II was forced to abdicate. The Weimar Republic was proclaimed after the war ended. Bulgaria and the Ottoman Empire had already withdrawn.
Other Fronts: Fighting also took place in the Balkans, the Middle East, Africa, the Far East, and the Pacific. Spain remained neutral.
Consequences: The war resulted in millions of soldiers dead, along with civilian casualties due to hardship and malnutrition. It left millions of widows and orphans. Women who had taken on jobs during the war struggled to find work afterward. The war also led to bitterness between classes and nations, particularly between France and Germany. Germany felt humiliated and abused. Economically, France suffered significant destruction, European countries incurred debts, and the US benefited. Politically, Europe lost its dominance, the US emerged as a major power, and the map of Europe was redrawn with the disappearance of Austria-Hungary and the Ottoman Empire, and the emergence of new nations.
League of Nations: Established in 1919, the League of Nations aimed to prevent future wars through international cooperation and diplomacy.