Early American History: From Columbus to 18th Century Transformations
America from Discovery to 1598
Columbus’s Voyages
The Genoese Columbus, based in Portugal, planned a western route to India to save time. The Portuguese King rejected his proposal, but he secured support from the Catholic Monarchs of Castile. After initial setbacks, Columbus signed the Capitulations of Santa Fe, gaining titles of admiral, viceroy, and governor, along with 10% of the profits. With three ships—the Niña, the Pinta, and the flagship Santa María—and about 100 men, including the Pinzón brothers and Juan de la Cosa, Columbus sailed from Palos. After a stop in the Canary Islands, they crossed the ocean, sighting the island of San Salvador on October 12, 1492. The Santa María ran aground, and part of the crew remained while the rest returned on the two caravels.
Columbus Loses His Privileges
On his second voyage with 17 ships and 1,400 men, Columbus found the Christmas settlement destroyed with no survivors. He was sent back to Spain in chains. The monarchs released him but did not restore his title of Admiral. Ovando was later appointed the first American governor.
17th Century America
During the seventeenth century, America experienced a demographic recovery. The populations of white Creoles, mestizos, and African blacks grew, and the decline of the indigenous population slowed. A multiracial society emerged, with peninsular whites at the top, followed by Creoles, mestizos, Indians, mulattos, and blacks. Despite legal restrictions, interracial marriages occurred, as exemplified by San Martin de Porres, the mulatto son of a Spanish nobleman and a black Panamanian freedwoman. The Spanish American economy remained largely based on mining, with Potosí becoming a major silver producer, worked by both slaves and forced indigenous labor through the mita system. The economy diversified with the expansion of cocoa, the introduction of European crops, the development of livestock, and tobacco cultivation. Inter-American trade was limited, with restrictions on land routes like that between Lima and Buenos Aires. Trade with the Philippines was restricted to a single galleon. Trade with Spain was conducted through a fleet system: two expeditions sailed annually from Seville and Cádiz, one to Veracruz and another to Portobelo, gathering in Cuba for the return voyage under heavy escort. All products were supposed to return to Spain, but smuggling was rampant. Latin American society was characterized by a desire for ostentation, strong urban planning (as seen in Tenochtitlan, Lima, and Potosí), a relatively high level of culture with universities and printing presses, Christianized indigenous populations, hierarchical management (e.g., viceroys being promoted), and significant corruption.
The Great Conquests: Cortés and Pizarro
Cortés in Mexico
Hernán Cortés landed in Veracruz, Mexico, with about 600 men from Cuba. He founded the city and was appointed its adelantado by the council. After defeating the Tlaxcalans, he allied with them and marched to Tenochtitlan. They were received by Moctezuma, who initially suspected the Spanish might be gods. Cortés captured Moctezuma, but the Aztec ruler was deposed by his people, leading to a rebellion that forced the Spanish to retreat. However, Cortés defeated the Aztecs at Otumba and began the reconquest. Eventually, Cortés and his indigenous allies besieged Tenochtitlan, forcing its surrender.
Pizarro in Peru
Francisco Pizarro conquered the Inca Empire, capturing Atahualpa in Cajamarca and seizing control. Atahualpa was later executed. Despite an indigenous revolt, the Spanish held Cuzco and established political organization, including the Council of the Indies, two viceroyalties (New Spain and Peru), audiencias with judicial and executive functions, and encomiendas. Certain indigenous authorities were maintained, and laws were passed prohibiting the enslavement of natives.
18th Century America
The eighteenth century saw significant territorial expansion in America. Franciscan missions were established in California (e.g., Los Angeles, San Francisco), advances were made in Chile against the Araucanians, and expansion began in the Pampas. Administratively, two new viceroyalties were created: Buenos Aires and New Granada. Mayors were appointed, and during the reign of Charles III, specific ministries were established (though later dissolved under Charles IV). Spanish immigration, including Catalans (e.g., Viceroy Amat), along with the forced arrival of African slaves and indigenous population growth, led to a population of 15-16 million. Peru’s wealth declined in favor of New Spain, which surpassed Potosí in silver production. The Southern Cone saw the development of feral cattle ranching, with leather exports becoming significant. The fleet system was relaxed, allowing individual ships to sail, reducing the danger of piracy and opening ports like Buenos Aires to increased trade. While colonies were theoretically only supposed to trade with Spain, smuggling was common, especially with the English. During wartime, Spain allowed colonies to trade with neutral countries. Manufacturing focused on obrajes. Cuban society remained multiracial and hierarchical. Slaves had certain rights but also indulged in gambling and luxury. Culturally, figures like Mutis and Olavide emerged as enlightened botanists.