Early American History: Slavery, Colonization, and Key Figures
James Thomson Callender and the Jefferson-Hemings Controversy
In 1802, James Thomson Callender published a story alleging that then-President Thomas Jefferson had several children with Sally Hemings, a woman he enslaved. Callender had previously been a political ally of Jefferson, expecting to be appointed postmaster of Richmond, Virginia. However, Jefferson, seeking to distance himself from patronage, did not make the appointment. Callender threatened to publish the story if not appointed, and after he followed through, he was later found dead by drowning.
Sally Hemings: A Life Entwined with Jefferson
Sally Hemings was the daughter of an enslaved woman, Elizabeth Hemings, and Captain John Hemings. Elizabeth Hemings married John Wayles, and they had Sally. Sally was later given to Martha Wayles, who married Thomas Jefferson.
Inclusivism vs. Exclusivism
- Inclusivism: An Indigenous practice where aspects of another religion are adopted if deemed useful and right.
- Exclusivism: Practiced by Christianity, Islam, and Judaism, where conversion requires abandoning previous beliefs and practices to adopt the new ones exclusively.
Captivity and Slavery in the 1400s
Before 1400, the roots of slavery worldwide often stemmed from prisoners of war. Instead of being killed, captives were sometimes adopted into society and treated as adults. While not ideal, this form of slavery differed significantly from the race-based slavery that emerged in later centuries.
The Great Chain of Being
Feudalism and Christianity were interconnected through the Great Chain of Being, a belief in a God-ordained hierarchy among humans. This hierarchy ranged from the Pope and kings to aristocrats and, ultimately, peasants. This concept provided a rationale for the wealthy to maintain power and justified the institution of slavery.
Christopher Columbus and the Colonization of the Americas
In 1492, Christopher Columbus sailed across the ocean and reached the Caribbean islands, believing he had arrived in the Indies. He left some of his men behind to gather supplies, including sugarcane plants. Upon his return, Columbus discovered that the Taino people had killed all his men. He retaliated, attacking the Taino and initiating a pattern of violence and disease that decimated the native population. Columbus subsequently enslaved the native people to work for the Spanish.
The Requerimiento and “Just War”
The Requerimiento was a statement that Spanish conquistadors were required to read to Native Americans they encountered. This document demanded that the native people convert to Catholicism, promising them privileges and exemptions if they complied. It served as a justification for “just war” and allowed the Europeans to assert their dominance.
Esteban: Conquistador and Explorer
Esteban was a conquistador who traversed the United States for years, relying on Native Americans for assistance. Fueled by rumors of gold, he journeyed from Mexico to the Southwest in search of riches. Initially welcomed by Native Americans, Esteban was eventually captured and killed by the Zuni people due to prior Spanish enslavement. News of his death prompted the Spanish to attack the Zuni and other Pueblo peoples.
Hernando de Soto’s Failed Expedition
Hernando de Soto landed in Tampa, Florida, seeking cities of gold. He led an army into the interior but found no gold. De Soto and most of his men were killed by Native Americans, marking the failure of his expedition. The persistent rumors of gold continued to fuel expeditions in the Southwestern United States.
Francisco de Coronado’s Search for Gold
Francisco de Coronado was a conquistador redirected to the plains by the Pueblo people as he searched for gold. His expedition was unsuccessful, and he was forced to flee to Mexico.
Paquiquieno/Luis de Velasco: A Captive’s Return
Paquiquieno, later known as Luis de Velasco, was captured in a Spanish slave raid and taken to Spain. He converted to Christianity and adopted his new name. Homesick, he persuaded the Spanish king to allow him to return home and convert his people. In 1570, the king sent him back with eight Spanish priests. Paquiquieno warned his people about Spain’s conquest and plans for America. The last letter from the Spanish priests indicated a plea to Paquiquieno, and the priests were never heard from again.
Samuel de Champlain: Founder of New France
Samuel de Champlain was a soldier and merchant who played a crucial role in establishing French trade in the Americas. He founded trading posts on native lands, including Quebec, which became a major hub for the fur trade, particularly beaver pelts. He later founded Montreal.