Early American Literature: Exploring Identity, Faith, and the New World
UNIT 1: JOHN SMITH (1580 – 1631) – THE GENERAL HISTORY OF VIRGINIA, NEW ENGLAND, AND THE SUMMER ISLES
1. Representation of Violence
Captain Smith faces threats: attacked by bowmen, tied to a tree for arrow execution, and dragged before Powhatan for possible execution. Weapons mentioned include arrows, bows, firearms, swords, quivers, clubs, and hatchets. Smith’s military expertise is evident in his detailed descriptions of his captors’ movements.
2. Autobiographical Elements
Smith’s captivity narrative portrays him as a brave hero, though its authenticity is debated. He recounts slaying attackers and escaping capture, ultimately attributing his survival to Pocahontas. While he presents himself as courageous and resourceful, readers may perceive him as self-promoting and boastful.
3. Stylistic Features
Smith’s writing exhibits a heroic tone, magnifying events and inviting reader sympathy. Diction is formal and dignified, employing vocabulary related to war and battle. His style is grand and vigorous, reflecting his background as a man of action.
4. Third-Person Narrative
Smith uses the third-person singular to distance himself from the narrative and create an impression of objectivity. This technique enhances his portrayal as a resourceful and cultivated gentleman.
5. Ritualistic Interpretation
The episode with Pocahontas saving Smith’s life is debated. Its similarity to other rescue narratives and its late appearance in Smith’s writings raise questions about its authenticity. It’s suggested Smith may have misinterpreted a Native American ritual.
6. Impression of Native Americans
Smith’s portrayal of Native Americans is complex. He focuses on their physical appearance and actions, often depicting them as unpredictable and irrational. While he uses derogatory terms like “savages,” he also expresses fascination with their culture.
7. Literary Sources
Smith uses quotations from Seneca to demonize Native Americans and underscore his own predicament. His writing reflects his political intentions and the concept of “manifest destiny.”
8. Historical Context
Smith’s involvement with the Virginia Company and the establishment of Jamestown provide historical context for his writings. His focus on commercial goals reflects the company’s priorities.
9. Style of John Smith
Smith’s military background and political intentions shaped his writing style. He aimed to project a heroic image of himself and promote the colonial enterprise.
10. The New World and its Inhabitants
Smith portrays Native American tribes and leaders through a European lens, drawing parallels with European hierarchical positions. This reflects his colonial perspective and the desire to make Native American society comprehensible to his European audience.
UNIT 2: WILLIAM BRADFORD (1590 – 1657) – FROM OF PLYMOUTH PLANTATION
1. Self-Representation
Bradford presents himself as a righteous and observant Puritan leader, chosen by God to guide his community. He uses biblical allusions and quotations to reinforce his piety and authority.
2. Genre Elements
Bradford’s writing adheres to the Puritan plain style, emphasizing clarity and instruction over ornamentation. His history of Plymouth Plantation serves to interpret God’s design and enhance spiritual life.
3. Stylistic Features
Bradford’s plain style reflects his Puritan beliefs. He uses biblical allusions and quotations to connect the Pilgrims’ experiences to the history of Israel.
4. Historical Context
Bradford’s journey to America with the Scrooby Congregation and the establishment of Plymouth Colony provide historical context for his writings.
5. Autobiographical Elements
Bradford’s personal experiences as a leader of the Pilgrims inform his writing and contribute to his self-representation as a chosen leader guided by God.
6. Narrative Voice and Modes
Bradford primarily uses third-person narration, occasionally switching to first-person to connect events to Scripture or his own thoughts. This emphasizes the community’s experiences while highlighting his role as a leader.
7. Literary and Biblical Sources
Bradford draws heavily on biblical sources, comparing the Pilgrims to the Israelites and America to the Promised Land. He also references Seneca’s voyage to compare it to the Mayflower’s journey.
8. Binary Oppositions
Bradford’s writing often employs binary oppositions, such as good and evil, wilderness and civilization, to reinforce the Pilgrims’ struggles and triumphs.
9. Subject Matter and Purpose
Bradford’s writing serves as propaganda for the colonies’ westward expansion, portraying the Pilgrims as God’s chosen people destined to conquer the new frontier.
10. Interpretation of Historical Events
Bradford interprets historical events through a providential lens, attributing successes and failures to God’s will. This reinforces the Puritan belief in God’s divine plan.
11. The New World and its Inhabitants
Bradford’s writing reflects the Puritan view of Native Americans as “savage barbarians” excluded from redemption. He emphasizes the challenges of the wilderness and the Pilgrims’ reliance on God for survival.
12. Portrayal of Native Americans
Bradford portrays Native Americans as heathens and obstacles to the Pilgrims’ mission. This reflects the Puritan belief in their own chosen status and the justification for westward expansion.
UNIT 3: ANNE BRADSTREET (1612 – 1672)
1. Use of Imagery
Bradstreet employs vivid imagery, often drawn from nature, to convey her emotions and experiences. Her metaphors and similes create powerful visual and sensory impressions.
2. Use of Figurative Language
Bradstreet masterfully uses metaphors to explore themes of family, faith, and loss. Her extended metaphors, such as “The Author to Her Book” and “Upon the Burning of Our House,” create rich and complex layers of meaning.
3. Reflection of Social Context
Bradstreet’s writing reflects the social constraints faced by women in Puritan society. Her poems often address themes of domesticity, motherhood, and the challenges of balancing personal desires with societal expectations.
4. Ambiguity and Ambivalence
Bradstreet’s poems often exhibit ambiguity and ambivalence, reflecting the complexities of her faith and her personal experiences. Her poems can be interpreted in multiple ways, revealing the tensions between her Puritan beliefs and her personal emotions.
8. Metrical Pattern and Rhetorical Devices
Bradstreet employs various metrical patterns and rhetorical devices, such as heroic couplets, iambic pentameter, and anaphora, to create rhythm and emphasis in her poems. Her use of irony and paradox adds depth and complexity to her work.
10. Literary Context
Bradstreet’s writing was influenced by both Puritan plain style and Renaissance literary traditions. She drew inspiration from poets such as Edmund Spenser, Sir Philip Sidney, and John Donne.
11. Ideology of the Author
Bradstreet’s poems reveal her complex and often ambivalent relationship with Puritan ideology. She explores themes of faith, doubt, and the challenges of reconciling personal desires with religious expectations.
12. Historical Context and Ideology
Bradstreet’s writing reflects the historical context of Puritan New England and the challenges faced by women in a patriarchal society. Her poems offer insights into the social and cultural norms of the time.
13. Binary Oppositions
Bradstreet’s poems often employ binary oppositions, such as good and evil, faith and doubt, to explore the complexities of human experience and the challenges of living a pious life.
14. Self-Representation
Bradstreet’s poems offer a complex and multifaceted self-representation. She portrays herself as a devout Puritan, a loving wife and mother, and a talented poet grappling with the challenges of her faith and her social context.
UNIT 4: MARY ROWLANDSON (1637 – 1711) – FROM A NARRATIVE OF THE CAPTIVITY AND RESTAURATION OF MRS. MARY ROWLANDSON
1. Subject Matter and Themes
Rowlandson’s narrative explores themes of faith, captivity, and survival. She portrays her experiences as a test of her Puritan faith and a testament to God’s providence.
2. Features of the Genre
Rowlandson’s narrative is a classic example of the captivity narrative genre. It features a first-person account of capture, ordeal, and eventual redemption, highlighting the protagonist’s spiritual journey and resilience.
3. Self-Representation
Rowlandson portrays herself as a devout Puritan woman who endures captivity with unwavering faith. She acknowledges her weaknesses and struggles, but ultimately emphasizes her reliance on God for strength and guidance.
4. Plain Style
Rowlandson’s narrative is written in the plain style characteristic of Puritan writing. Her clear and concise language focuses on conveying her experiences and spiritual insights without embellishment.
5. Narrative Modes
Rowlandson primarily uses the narrative modes of report and comment. She provides detailed accounts of her experiences and intersperses them with reflections on God’s providence and the meaning of her captivity.
6. Perception of Native Americans
Rowlandson’s initial portrayal of Native Americans reflects the prejudices of her time. However, as her narrative progresses, she develops a more nuanced understanding of her captors, acknowledging their humanity and even expressing gratitude for acts of kindness.
7. Captivity Narrative: Subject Matter and Purpose
Rowlandson’s narrative serves as a testament to the power of faith and the importance of trusting in God’s providence during times of adversity. It also reinforces the Puritan view of Native Americans as a threat to their way of life.
8. Propaganda Function
Rowlandson’s narrative, like other captivity narratives, served a propaganda function by reinforcing negative stereotypes of Native Americans and justifying colonial expansion.
9. Biblical Sources
Rowlandson’s narrative is replete with biblical allusions and quotations. She uses Scripture to interpret her experiences and to find comfort and guidance during her captivity.
10. Stylistic Features
Rowlandson’s writing is characterized by its plain style, vivid imagery, and emotional honesty. Her narrative conveys the horrors of captivity while also expressing her unwavering faith in God.
11. Historical Context
Rowlandson’s narrative provides valuable insights into the historical context of King Philip’s War and the tensions between Native Americans and English colonists in New England.
12. Hints of a Subversive Subtext
While Rowlandson’s narrative generally conforms to Puritan ideology, some passages hint at a more subversive subtext, suggesting a degree of empathy for her captors and questioning the righteousness of the colonial enterprise.
13. Comparison with Smith and Bradford
Rowlandson’s presentation of history, like that of Smith and Bradford, is shaped by her Puritan worldview. However, her narrative offers a more personal and emotionally resonant perspective on the challenges of colonial life and the complexities of intercultural encounters.
UNIT 5: JONATHAN EDWARDS (1703 – 1758) – SINNERS IN THE HANDS OF AN ANGRY GOD
1. Binary Oppositions
Edwards employs binary oppositions, such as good and evil, heaven and hell, to emphasize the stark choices facing his congregation and to instill a sense of urgency for repentance.
2. Metaphor
Edwards utilizes vivid metaphors and similes to depict the horrors of hell and the wrath of God. His graphic imagery is intended to evoke fear and motivate his audience to seek salvation.
3. Issues of Subject Matter and Purpose
Edwards’s sermon aims to awaken his congregation to the reality of sin and the imminence of God’s judgment. He uses fear and vivid imagery to persuade them to repent and embrace God’s grace.
5. Use of Language for Persuasion
Edwards employs a variety of rhetorical strategies, including vivid imagery, emotional appeals, and biblical allusions, to persuade his audience to turn away from sin and embrace God’s mercy.
6. Style
Edwards’s writing style is characterized by its plainness, clarity, and emotional intensity. He uses simple language to convey complex theological concepts and to evoke a strong emotional response in his listeners.
7. Biblical Sources
Edwards’s sermon is deeply rooted in Scripture. He frequently alludes to and quotes from the Bible to support his arguments and to reinforce the authority of his message.
8. Literary Sources
Edwards’s writing was influenced by Puritan literary traditions and the rhetorical styles of his predecessors. He also drew inspiration from the Enlightenment emphasis on reason and natural law.
9. Regarding Style
Edwards’s writing style is a powerful blend of Puritan plain style and the emotional intensity of the Great Awakening. His use of vivid imagery and biblical allusions creates a lasting impression on his audience.
UNIT 6: BENJAMIN FRANKLIN (1706 – 1790) – THE AUTOBIOGRAPHY
1. Binary Oppositions
Franklin’s autobiography explores binary oppositions such as industry and idleness, virtue and vice, to illustrate his personal journey toward self-improvement and moral perfection.
2. Self-Representation
Franklin portrays himself as a self-made man who achieved success through hard work, diligence, and a commitment to virtuous living. His autobiography serves as a model for others seeking to achieve the American Dream.
3. Issues of Subject Matter and Purpose
Franklin’s autobiography explores themes of self-improvement, the pursuit of knowledge, and the importance of civic engagement. It reflects the values of the Enlightenment and the emerging American identity.
4. His Values and Moral Concerns
Franklin’s writing reflects his commitment to reason, practicality, and the pursuit of the common good. He emphasizes the importance of hard work, frugality, and civic responsibility.
5. Autobiography in His Writings
Franklin’s autobiography is a classic example of the genre. It provides a detailed account of his life, highlighting his achievements and offering insights into his personal philosophy and moral development.
6. Use of Language for Persuasion
Franklin employs a clear and persuasive writing style. He uses anecdotes, examples, and logical reasoning to convey his ideas and to inspire his readers to embrace his values of self-improvement and civic virtue.
7. Style
Franklin’s writing style is characterized by its clarity, conciseness, and wit. He avoids ornamentation and focuses on conveying his message in a straightforward and engaging manner.
8. Reading Style
Franklin’s writing is accessible and engaging. His use of plain language and relatable anecdotes makes his autobiography a timeless classic that continues to inspire readers today.
UNIT 7: OLAUDAH EQUIANO (1745 – 1797) – THE INTERESTING NARRATIVE OF THE LIFE OF OLAUDAH EQUIANO, OR GUSTAVUS VASSA, THE AFRICAN
1. Binary Oppositions
Equiano utilizes binary oppositions, such as freedom and slavery, Christianity and paganism, to highlight the injustices of the slave trade and to advocate for abolition.
2. Self-Representation
Equiano portrays himself as a victim of the transatlantic slave trade who overcame adversity through resilience, faith, and a commitment to education and self-improvement. His narrative challenges stereotypes about Africans and asserts their humanity and intellectual capabilities.
3. Slave Narrative: Subject Matter and Purpose
Equiano’s narrative is a powerful indictment of the slave trade. It provides a firsthand account of the horrors of slavery and advocates for its abolition, appealing to both Christian and Enlightenment values.
4. How He Dealt with Race Issues
Equiano directly confronts issues of race and racism in his narrative. He challenges the dehumanization of Africans and asserts their inherent dignity and equality, using his personal experiences to expose the brutality and injustice of the slave system.
5. Propaganda Function
Equiano’s narrative served as a powerful tool for the abolitionist movement. It provided compelling evidence of the horrors of slavery and helped to sway public opinion against the institution.
7. Autobiography in His Writings
Equiano’s narrative is a significant contribution to the genre of autobiography. It offers a unique perspective on the African experience in the eighteenth century and provides a powerful voice for the marginalized and oppressed.
8. How He Represented Violence
Equiano graphically depicts the violence inherent in the slave trade, from the capture and forced march to the Middle Passage and the brutal treatment of enslaved people in the Americas. His unflinching portrayal of violence serves to expose the inhumanity of the system and to evoke empathy in his readers.
9. Historical Sources
Equiano’s narrative provides valuable historical insights into the transatlantic slave trade and the experiences of enslaved Africans in the eighteenth century. His account is a crucial primary source for understanding this dark chapter in human history.
10. Subject Matter and Themes
Equiano’s narrative explores themes of freedom, identity, faith, and the resilience of the human spirit in the face of unimaginable adversity. It is a testament to the power of storytelling to challenge injustice and to promote social change.
UNIT 8: PHILLIS WHEATLEY (1753 – 1784)
1. Paradox in “To the University of Cambridge, in New England”
The paradox in lines 28-30 of Wheatley’s poem lies in the contrasting descriptions of sin as both “sweet” and “painful.” This paradox highlights the seductive nature of sin and its ultimately destructive consequences. Additionally, Wheatley, as an enslaved African woman, occupies a paradoxical position of both powerlessness and authority as she admonishes the privileged students of Harvard University.
2. Rhetorical Devices and Imagery
Wheatley employs various rhetorical devices, including metaphors, similes, and biblical allusions, to enhance the impact of her poems. Her imagery is often drawn from nature and classical mythology, adding depth and complexity to her work.
3. The Ethiop Allusion
Wheatley refers to herself as an “Ethiop” in her poem “To the University of Cambridge, in New England.” This allusion connects her to the biblical kingdom of Ethiopia, a symbol of ancient Christianity and African heritage. By identifying herself as an Ethiop, Wheatley asserts her intellectual and spiritual authority despite her enslaved status.
4. Historical Context
Wheatley’s writing reflects the historical context of the American Revolution and the growing debate over slavery. Her poems subtly address issues of race, freedom, and equality, challenging the hypocrisy of a nation founded on liberty while simultaneously upholding the institution of slavery.
5. Metaphorical Language
Wheatley’s poems are rich in metaphorical language. She uses metaphors to explore themes of faith, redemption, and the complexities of the human condition. Her metaphors often draw on biblical imagery and classical allusions, adding depth and resonance to her work.
6. Self-Representation
Wheatley’s poems offer a complex and nuanced self-representation. She portrays herself as a devout Christian, a talented poet, and an advocate for freedom and equality. Her writing challenges stereotypes about enslaved Africans and asserts their intellectual and spiritual capabilities.
7. How She Dealt with Race Issues
Wheatley subtly addresses issues of race and racism in her poems. She uses irony and biblical allusions to critique the hypocrisy of slaveholders and to advocate for the inherent dignity and equality of all people, regardless of race.
8. How the Stanza Fits into the Poem as a Whole
The stanza in question, from Wheatley’s poem “On Being Brought from Africa to America,” initially appears to celebrate her conversion to Christianity. However, a closer reading reveals a subtle critique of the slave trade and the hypocrisy of Christian slaveholders. The stanza’s seemingly straightforward message is undercut by ironic undertones and biblical allusions that challenge the reader to confront the injustices of slavery.
9. References to “Gallic Powers,” Columbia, and Britannia
In her poem “To His Excellency General Washington,” Wheatley uses the term “Gallic powers” to refer to France, America’s ally in the Revolutionary War. “Columbia” is a poetic personification of America, while “Britannia” represents Great Britain.
10. The Poet’s References to Freedom and Race
Wheatley’s references to freedom and race are often subtle and layered with irony. She celebrates the ideals of liberty and equality while simultaneously highlighting the hypocrisy of a nation that denies these rights to enslaved Africans. Her poems subtly challenge readers to confront the contradictions inherent in American society.
11. Use of Irony
Wheatley employs irony to critique the institution of slavery and the hypocrisy of those who espouse freedom while simultaneously denying it to others. Her ironic undertones and subtle challenges to authority make her poems complex and thought-provoking.
12. References to Her Religious Concerns
Wheatley’s poems are deeply informed by her Christian faith. She explores themes of redemption, salvation, and the importance of living a virtuous life. Her religious beliefs provide a framework for understanding her experiences and for advocating for social justice.
13. Ambiguity and Ambivalence
Wheatley’s poems often exhibit ambiguity and ambivalence, reflecting the complexities of her position as an enslaved African woman in a society that both celebrated liberty and upheld the institution of slavery. Her poems can be interpreted in multiple ways, revealing the tensions between her faith, her personal experiences, and the social and political realities of her time.
UNIT 9: WASHINGTON IRVING (1783 – 1859) – THE ALHAMBRA
1. Historical Events
Irving’s “Legend of Don Munio Sancho de Hinojosa” draws on historical events from medieval Spain, including the Reconquista and the conflicts between Christians and Moors. Irving blends historical fact with fictional elements to create a romantic and evocative tale.
2. Characterization of Don Munio Sancho de Hinojosa
Don Munio is portrayed as a chivalrous and honorable knight, embodying the ideals of bravery, loyalty, and generosity. He is a romanticized figure who represents the virtues of a bygone era.
3. Main Stylistic Features
Irving’s writing is characterized by its rich descriptions, evocative imagery, and elegant prose. He uses a variety of literary devices, including similes, metaphors, and personification, to create a vivid and engaging narrative.
4. Portrayal of Main Characters and Stereotypes
Irving’s characters are often romanticized and idealized, reflecting the conventions of the Romantic era. While his portrayal of Don Munio and other characters may rely on stereotypes, they also embody the values and ideals that Irving sought to celebrate.
5. Narrative Modes
Irving employs a variety of narrative modes, including description, report, speech, and comment. He uses these modes to create a rich and multifaceted narrative that blends historical detail with fictional elements.
6. Aversion to Rationalism and Materialism
Irving’s writing reflects a rejection of Enlightenment rationalism and nineteenth-century materialism. He embraces the Romantic ideals of imagination, emotion, and the power of storytelling to transport readers to different times and places.
7. Fact and Fiction
Irving’s writing often blends historical fact with fictional elements. He uses historical settings and events as a backdrop for his imaginative tales, creating a world that is both familiar and fantastical.
8. Style
Irving’s writing style is characterized by its elegance, wit, and evocative imagery. He uses a variety of literary devices to create a rich and engaging narrative that transports readers to different times and places.
9. Subject Matter and Themes
Irving’s writing explores themes of history, legend, and the power of imagination. He celebrates the romance of the past and the enduring appeal of storytelling.
UNIT 10: JAMES FENIMORE COOPER (1789 – 1851) – THE LAST OF THE MOHICANS
1. Historical Events
Cooper’s novel is set during the French and Indian War, a historical conflict between Britain and France for control of North America. The novel depicts the violence and brutality of warfare and the complex relationships between Native Americans and European colonists.
2. Main Stylistic Features
Cooper’s writing is characterized by its detailed descriptions, fast-paced action, and melodramatic tone. He uses vivid imagery and figurative language to create a sense of excitement and adventure.
3. Main Elements of the Genre
Cooper’s novel is a classic example of the historical romance genre. It blends historical events with fictional characters and storylines, creating a thrilling and evocative narrative.
4. Perception of Native Americans
Cooper’s portrayal of Native Americans is complex and often stereotypical. He depicts both “good” and “bad” Indians, reinforcing the romanticized notion of the “noble savage” while also perpetuating negative stereotypes.
5. Narrative Modes
Cooper primarily uses the narrative modes of report and description. He provides detailed accounts of action and setting, creating a vivid and immersive reading experience.
6. Characterization of Magua
Magua is a complex and multifaceted character who embodies both the nobility and the savagery of Native American stereotypes. He is a skilled warrior and a cunning strategist, but he is also driven by revenge and a desire for justice.
7. Fact and Fiction
Cooper’s novel blends historical fact with fictional elements. He uses the historical setting of the French and Indian War as a backdrop for his fictional characters and storylines.
8. Style
Cooper’s writing style is characterized by its detailed descriptions, fast-paced action, and melodramatic tone. He uses vivid imagery and figurative language to create a sense of excitement and adventure.
9. How He Represented Violence
Cooper depicts violence graphically and realistically in his novel. He does not shy away from the brutality of warfare and the harsh realities of frontier life.
10. Subject Matter and Themes
Cooper’s novel explores themes of frontier life, the clash of cultures, and the romanticized notion of the “noble savage.” It also addresses issues of race, identity, and the complexities of intercultural relationships.
UNIT 11: RALPH WALDO EMERSON (1803 – 1882) – NATURE / HAMATREYA
1. A Thesis Statement
Emerson’s writings emphasize the importance of individual intuition and experience in understanding the natural world and the divine. He encourages readers to transcend societal norms and to forge their own unique paths to spiritual enlightenment.
2. Self-Representation
Emerson portrays himself as a Transcendentalist philosopher who seeks to connect with the divine through nature and individual intuition. He encourages readers to embrace their own individuality and to trust their inner voices.
3. Theme and Style
Emerson’s writing is characterized by its philosophical depth, poetic language, and emphasis on individual intuition and experience. He explores themes of nature, spirituality, and the importance of self-reliance.
4. Main Stylistic Features
Emerson’s writing is characterized by its use of metaphors, similes, and aphorisms. He employs a poetic and evocative style that encourages readers to think deeply about the natural world and their place within it.
5. Historical Context and Author’s Ideas
Emerson’s writing reflects the intellectual and cultural ferment of the American Renaissance. He challenges traditional ways of thinking and encourages readers to embrace new ideas and perspectives.
6. Narrative Voice and Narrative Mode
Emerson often uses a first-person narrative voice and employs a variety of narrative modes, including description, reflection, and exhortation. He invites readers to join him on his intellectual and spiritual journey.
UNIT 12: HENRY DAVID THOREAU (1817 – 1862) – WALDEN
1. Self-Representation
Thoreau portrays himself as a nonconformist and a champion of individual self-reliance. He advocates for a simpler way of life, closer to nature and free from the constraints of societal expectations.
2. Theme and Style
Thoreau’s writing is characterized by its philosophical depth, detailed observations of nature, and advocacy for individual self-reliance and civil disobedience. He explores themes of simplicity, nature, and the importance of living a deliberate and meaningful life.
3. Main Stylistic Features
Thoreau’s writing is characterized by its use of vivid imagery, metaphors, and aphorisms. He employs a clear and concise style that is both informative and engaging.
4. Historical Context and Author’s Ideas
Thoreau’s writing reflects the social and political climate of his time, including the abolitionist movement and the growing concerns about industrialization and its impact on nature and society.
5. Narrative Voice and Mode
Thoreau uses a first-person narrative voice and employs a variety of narrative modes, including description, reflection, and social commentary. He invites readers to join him on his journey of self-discovery and to consider alternative ways of living.