Early Church Doctrine: Bishops, Councils, and Heresies

Posted on Apr 2, 2025 in Religion

The Role and Characteristics of Early Bishops

Every bishop has a triple mission in the diocese entrusted to him: to be a pastor, teacher, and pontiff. In the early centuries, bishops stood out for being wise, educated, and concerned with preaching the Gospel.

Characteristics of the Church Fathers

To be considered a Father of the Church, an individual generally needed:

  • Doctrinal Authority: Recognized by the Church.
  • Antiquity: Belonging to the early centuries of the Church.
  • Sanctity of Life: Demonstrated holiness.
  • Ecclesiastical Approval: Explicit or implicit approval by the Church.

Attributes of Bishops in Iconography

The principal functions of a bishop are often recognized in iconography through specific attributes:

  • The Staff (Crosier): Represents his role as a shepherd who leads, directs, and guides the faithful.
  • The Miter: A tall liturgical headdress, ending in two points, symbolizing the Old and New Testaments and representing his role as a teacher.
  • Blessing Hands: Indicate his function as Pontiff (bridge-builder), confirming the faith and sanctifying his brethren.
  • Other Symbols: Include the episcopal ring, the cathedra (chair), and the pectoral cross.

Early Church Councils

Since the Edict of Milan, the Christian world saw a proliferation of Councils (assemblies) where bishops, often presided over by the Pope or his legate, met to address matters related to faith or church life.

Local Councils

  • Definition: Meetings of bishops from a determined geographical area.
  • Examples in Hispania: The Council of Elvira and the numerous Councils of Toledo (notable for King Reccared’s conversion from Arianism).

Ecumenical Councils

  • Definition: Universal assemblies involving bishops from the entire known world (Oikoumene), held under the authority of the Pope, dealing with matters binding on the whole Church.
  • First Ecumenical Council: The Council of Nicaea.
  • Purpose: To combat various heresies and set forth authoritative syntheses of Christian faith.

Major Christological Heresies and Councils

In the early centuries, particularly the 4th and 5th, many truths of the Christian faith were debated and clarified, especially aspects concerning Jesus Christ as true God and true man.

Arianism and the First Ecumenical Councils

In Alexandria, a priest named Arius taught that Jesus was a created being and therefore not truly God.

  • Council of Nicaea (325 AD): Convened by Emperor Constantine, with around 300 bishops attending. It condemned Arius’s teachings and solemnly affirmed that Jesus Christ is truly the Son of God, consubstantial (of the same substance) with the Father.
  • Despite the council, Arianism spread widely throughout the Roman Empire.
  • Council of Constantinople (381 AD): Convened by Emperor Theodosius. It reaffirmed the doctrine of Nicaea and also explicitly affirmed the divinity of the Holy Spirit, clarifying the doctrine of the Trinity: God is One in three Persons – Father, Son, and Holy Spirit.
  • The Councils of Nicaea and Constantinople synthesized the orthodox doctrine in what is known as the Nicene-Constantinopolitan Creed.

Nestorianism, Monophysitism, and Later Councils

Further debates arose, particularly linked to the theological schools of Antioch (tending to emphasize Christ’s humanity) and Alexandria (tending to emphasize Christ’s divinity).

  • Nestorianism: A doctrine originating from Nestorius, Patriarch of Constantinople (appointed 428 AD). He taught that two distinct persons (the divine Son of God and the human man Jesus) coexisted in Christ. Consequently, he argued the Virgin Mary was the mother of the man Jesus (Christotokos) but not the Mother of God (Theotokos).
    • This was strongly opposed by Saint Cyril of Alexandria.
    • It was condemned by the Ecumenical Council of Ephesus in 431 AD, which affirmed Mary as Theotokos.
  • Monophysitism: Promoted by the monk Eutyches, who, in combating Nestorianism, fell into the opposite error. He claimed that Christ had only one nature – the divine – implying Jesus Christ was God but not truly man (his human nature being absorbed by the divine).
    • This heresy was condemned by the Ecumenical Council of Chalcedon in 451 AD.

Key Christological Conclusions from Early Councils

Through these foundational Ecumenical Councils, the Church articulated its understanding of Jesus Christ:

  • Council of Nicaea (325): Affirmed Jesus Christ is true God, Son of God.
  • Council of Constantinople (381): Reaffirmed Nicaea and clarified the doctrine of the Trinity, including the divinity of the Holy Spirit.
  • Council of Ephesus (431): Condemned Nestorianism, affirming Jesus is one divine person and Mary is the Mother of God (Theotokos).
  • Council of Chalcedon (451): Condemned Monophysitism, affirming Jesus Christ is one person with two natures (divine and human), united without confusion, change, division, or separation. He is truly God and truly man.