Early Greek Philosophy: Pre-Socratics and Socrates

Posted on Apr 3, 2025 in Philosophy and ethics

Pre-Socratic Philosophy: The Cosmos

Philosophy historically started with the cosmological period, comprising approximately 600 to 450 BCE. During this period, the main subject matter for philosophers was the cosmos (the universe). They sought answers about how the world originated, seeking to know its raw material or fundamental element. Aristotle called these philosophers ‘physicists’ because they studied physis (nature).

Thales of Miletus

The first philosophical school was established in the city of Miletus and was founded by the philosopher Thales of Miletus (born c. 624, died c. 545 BCE). Thales thought the fundamental element was water. His reasoning included:

  • Water is indispensable for life.
  • All living things contain water; those without it die.
  • Water is the most abundant substance in nature.
  • Water always remains; it doesn’t disappear but transforms into different states (solid, liquid, gas).

Anaximander

Born c. 610, died c. 547 BCE. He thought the essential element was an invisible, eternal, infinite substance that constituted everything that existed. He called it the Apeiron (the boundless or indefinite). Many years later, scientists would identify fundamental particles with similar conceptual roles.

Anaximenes

Born c. 585, died c. 525 BCE. He held that the key element is air, for two reasons:

  • All living things breathe; without air, they die.
  • Everything occupies a place or space, and this space is surrounded by air.

Heraclitus

Born c. 536, died c. 470 BCE. He observed that nature permanently changes and chose fire as the essential element because fire has no definite form, and its constant change best represents life. Heraclitus famously said, for example: “No man ever steps in the same river twice, for it’s not the same river and he’s not the same man.”

These early philosophers proposed monistic theories because they argued for a single fundamental element. However, there were also pluralist philosophers who argued that reality was composed of a mixture of several elements.

Empedocles of Acragas

Born c. 494, died c. 434 BCE. A pluralist, he maintained that the key elements were a mixture of earth, air, fire, and water.

Socratic Philosophy: The Human Focus

From approximately 450 to 400 BCE, the anthropological stage developed. This period focused on the human being, particularly as a political and social entity, as the main subject of study.

Socrates vs. The Sophists

The main protagonists of this stage were, on one hand, Socrates (born c. 470/469 BCE, died 399 BCE) and, on the other hand, the Sophists. The Sophists were teachers who claimed expertise in many subjects and charged substantial sums for teaching. They specialized in the arts of rhetoric, argumentation, and persuasion, turning philosophy into a practical profession and an effective political tool. Prominent Sophists include Protagoras, Gorgias, Hippias, and Prodicus.

Protagoras and Relativism

Protagoras famously stated: “Man is the measure of all things.” For many Sophists, this implied that there are no absolute rules or standards applicable universally; nothing is inherently good or bad—it all depends on the individual’s perspective (relativism).

Socrates’ Opposition to the Sophists

Socrates opposed the Sophists for several key reasons:

  1. The Sophists charged for teaching, whereas Socrates taught for free, engaging in dialogue in public spaces.
  2. The Sophists often claimed to know everything, while Socrates famously held: “I only know that I know nothing.” For him, the principle of wisdom was recognizing one’s own ignorance. He believed humility allows one to learn, whereas those who presumed to know everything, in their pride, could never truly learn.
  3. Socrates believed self-knowledge was paramount, making philosophy the path to understanding oneself and living a virtuous life.
  4. He combatted the Sophists’ relativism, arguing it was potentially harmful and that a just society required shared, rationally examined principles and virtues.

Socrates’ Contributions to Philosophy

Among Socrates’ significant contributions to philosophy, we can name:

  • The Socratic method (elenchus): rigorous questioning to analyze concepts and reveal ignorance.
  • Emphasis on the analysis of language and definitions.
  • Critique of the basic concepts of knowledge and belief.
  • Establishing the rational foundation of human conduct (ethics) as a central philosophical concern.
  • Inquiry into ideal state organization.
  • Developing the philosophical notion of the soul (psyche) as the seat of consciousness and moral character.