Early Middle Ages: Anglo-Saxon Period (449-1066)
Early Middle Ages: The Anglo-Saxon Period (449-1066)
The Middle Ages can be divided into two distinct periods: the Early Middle Ages and the Late Middle Ages. The Early Middle Ages, spanning from the mid-5th century to the mid-11th century (449-1066), is often referred to as the Anglo-Saxon period. During this time, the foundations of English culture and literature were laid.
Historical Context
The arrival of the Romans to the British Isles pushed the existing tribes to the fringes of the region, namely Scotland, Ireland, and Wales. In the 6th century, new groups from the North, including the Angles, Saxons, and Jutes, migrated to the area. This influx of people led to the collapse of the existing political and social order, resulting in the emergence of seven kingdoms, known as the Heptarchy. The relationships between these kingdoms were often fraught with tension, and the 8th century saw Viking invasions that further disrupted the political landscape. The kingdom of Wessex eventually repelled the Vikings, leading to their expansion northward.
Social Relations and Institutions
The Anglo-Saxon period was characterized by a strong bond between lords and their retainers, known as the comitatus. Lords provided protection, weapons, and other necessities to their followers, who in turn pledged their loyalty and military service. The comitatus often took precedence over family ties. Revenge was considered a duty rather than an emotion, and it was carefully regulated through a system known as wergild, where a price was placed on every person and property. The hall served as a central gathering place for social and political activities.
Authorship and Anonymity
While some Anglo-Saxon writers signed their manuscripts, others remained anonymous, perhaps due to a lack of interest in achieving personal fame or immortality.
Poetry
Anglo-Saxon poetry was formal and cultivated, characterized by the use of alliteration, caesura, and kennings. Alliteration involved the repetition of consonant sounds at the beginning of words, while caesura referred to a pause or break within a line of verse. Kennings were metaphorical expressions used to describe objects or concepts.
Themes
Anglo-Saxon poetry often blended pagan and Christian elements. Pagan themes included customs and practices related to funerals, navigation, jewelry, and hunting, as well as ethical values such as fame, loyalty, and attachment to earthly possessions. Christian themes emphasized monotheism, biblical references, the ephemeral nature of earthly life, and the importance of salvation through prayer.
Manuscripts and Genres
Several important manuscripts containing Anglo-Saxon poetry have survived, including Beowulf (British Library), Caedmon (Oxford), The Vercelli Book (containing “The Dream of the Rood”), and The Exeter Book (Exeter Library). Different genres of poetry emerged during this period, including epic poems like Beowulf and “The Battle of Maldon,” elegiac poems like “The Wanderer” and “The Seafarer,” allegorical poems like “The Dream of the Rood,” and economic poems like “The Riddles.”
Prose
Anglo-Saxon prose included documentary works such as the Anglo-Saxon Chronicles and translations from Latin, as well as hagiographic and homiletic texts.
Orality
The Anglo-Saxon period had a rich oral tradition, with many songs, ballads, and stories that were likely never written down. These oral performances, often sung in the hall by a scop (poet), served as a form of entertainment and a means of preserving cultural memory and transmitting values.