Early Middle Ages: Byzantium, Germanic Kingdoms, and Islam
Early Middle Ages
The onset of middle age (http://www.xuletas.es/buscar.php?s=El%20inicio%20de%20la%20edad%20media): Following the death of Theodosius (395), the Roman Empire was divided into West and East. During the 5th century, the Western Roman Empire suffered Germanic invasions. The Heruli deposed the last emperor (476), marking the end of the Western Roman Empire and the beginning of the Early Middle Ages, extending until the fall of Rome in the 15th century. The Western Empire’s territory was divided into Germanic kingdoms, leading to five centuries of challenges. The Eastern Roman Empire (Byzantium) endured for 1000 years after the fall of Rome.
The Age of Justinian
Some emperors dreamed of restoring Roman rule. Justinian (527-565) was one such emperor. His general, Belisarius, conquered North Africa (533-534) and Southern Spain (554). Byzantium strengthened its position in the Mediterranean. Justinian reorganized Roman laws, built temples, and promoted culture.
Byzantine Empire Organization
The Byzantine Empire was a theocratic state. The Byzantine emperors (basileus) were crowned by the Patriarch of Constantinople. The empire had a well-organized bureaucracy based on Roman law and was divided into themes.
Social and Economic Foundations
Byzantine society was structured like a pyramid, with the elite at the top, followed by merchants and peasants.
The Church’s Influence
The Church was closely tied to political power and greatly influenced Byzantine society. This led to iconoclastic conflicts over the prohibition of worshipping sacred images or icons. Another significant event was the rivalry between the Patriarch of Constantinople and the Pope of Rome, culminating in the Eastern Schism of 1054, which separated the Eastern and Western Churches.
Byzantine Cultural Legacy
Byzantine culture developed in imperial courts and shrines, supported by the state and church. Initially, it maintained its Roman heritage but became Hellenized from the seventh century onward. Byzantine culture synthesized classical culture, Christianity, and Eastern influences. Its contributions included the Justinian Code, preserving Roman laws.
Art and Architecture
Byzantine art was original and beautiful, though stylized. It featured arches supported by columns and favored square buildings. Hagia Sophia is a prime example. Buildings were decorated with mosaics depicting religious themes, characterized by rigid figures.
Germanic Kingdoms and Carolingian Empire
After the Western Roman Empire’s fall, Germanic peoples established various kingdoms.
Visigothic Kingdom
The Visigothic kingdom spanned both sides of the Pyrenees, with its capital initially in Toulouse. Pressure from the Franks led to its relocation to Toledo in the 6th century. The Arian Visigoths, initially a ruling minority, merged with the population when King Reccared converted to Catholicism (589). The elective monarchy led to internal conflicts, ultimately facilitating the Muslim invasion of the peninsula in 711.
Frankish Kingdom
The Franks, after crossing the Rhine, settled in Gaul. Clovis, a significant monarch, converted to Christianity and expanded Frankish territory, making it the most important Germanic kingdom. From the seventh century, his successors’ power weakened, shifting to powerful officials like Charles Martel, who defeated the Muslims at the Battle of Tours. His son, Pepin the Short, was elected king in 751, beginning the Carolingian Dynasty.
Carolingian Empire and the Birth of Europe
Charlemagne, Pepin’s son, led the Carolingian Dynasty to its peak. He was crowned Emperor by Pope Leo III on Christmas Day, 800 AD. The Carolingian Empire was vast, encompassing modern-day France (excluding Belgium), the Netherlands, parts of Germany, and Northern Italy. It was divided into counties. Charlemagne’s reign saw a cultural renaissance centered in Aachen. After his death, the empire fragmented. The Treaty of Verdun (843) divided the territory, leading to the formation of France, Germany, and various duchies.
Birth and Expansion of Islam
The Arabian Peninsula before Muhammad:
Arabia is a peninsula in Southwest Asia, between the Mediterranean Sea, the Red Sea, and the Indian Ocean. It is mostly desert, with a hot, dry climate. In the seventh century, its population was mainly nomadic pastoralists organized into independent tribes with polytheistic and animistic beliefs. Mecca was the most important city, home to the revered Black Stone.
Muhammad and Islam
Muhammad, the prophet of Islam, was born in Mecca in the seventh century. He began preaching Islam, whose teachings are reflected in the Quran, the Muslim holy book.