Early Modern Europe: Society, Politics, Economy (17th-18th C.)
17th Century Europe: Society and Economy
Population Challenges: Epidemics and Starvation
Europe’s population growth in the 17th century was poor, largely due to recurring epidemics and periods of starvation.
Social Hierarchy: Privileged vs. Non-Privileged
Society was strictly stratified, divided into privileged (nobility and clergy) and non-privileged classes. The bourgeoisie emerged as a rich and important sector within the non-privileged group.
Trade Expansion: New Routes and Atlantic Shift
New trade routes transformed the economy:
- The Precious Metals Route: Gold and silver were shipped from Peru and Mexico to the Caribbean, and from there to Seville.
- The Spice Route: Controlled by the Portuguese, this route started in India and ended in Lisbon.
In 1602, the Netherlands established the powerful Dutch East India Company. Consequently, the Mediterranean Sea lost economic importance, while Atlantic ports like Seville and Lisbon grew significantly.
Early Manufacturing Growth
To meet the demand for more products, merchants hired workers for a wage, providing them with raw materials and tools. This created the first forms of manufacturing outside the traditional guild system.
17th Century: War, Politics, and Religion
The Thirty Years’ War and Westphalia Peace
The Thirty Years’ War (1618-1648) pitted Catholics against Protestants. It ended with the Peace of Westphalia, which restructured the European political map.
Rise of Nation-States and Religious Freedom
The 17th century saw the dominance of nation-states. The Peace of Westphalia proclaimed religious freedom, ending over 100 years of religious wars. Northern European countries and England established their own state churches: Lutheran, Calvinist, or Anglican.
Absolute Monarchy: Divine Right Rule
Absolute Monarchy became the prevailing political system. All power was held by the king, who was believed to be appointed by God to rule (divine right). The monarch was assisted by ministers, counselors, secretaries, and officials.
Key Terms of the Early Modern Era
- Old Regime
- The social, economic, and political system in Europe during the 16th, 17th, and 18th centuries, characterized by a stratified society, an agrarian economy, and absolute monarchy.
- Absolute Monarchy
- A form of monarchy where the monarch holds supreme, autocratic authority, principally not being restricted by written laws, legislature, or customs. Power was often considered divine in origin, and the king was accountable to no one but God.
- Mercantilism
- An economic theory prevalent in the 16th and 17th centuries, advocating that a nation’s wealth and power were best served by increasing exports and collecting precious metals (bullion), often requiring protectionist tariffs and state intervention.
- Academies
- Official societies grouping writers, artists, philosophers, and scientists to discuss their knowledge, set standards, and help disseminate ideas.
- Salons (Lounges)
- Meetings of writers, philosophers, and artists, typically organized by a wealthy patron (often a woman) in her home, where works were read, ideas debated, and opinions formed.
- Habeas Corpus
- A legal principle stating that a person cannot be detained unlawfully. It requires that an arrested individual be brought before a judge or court, especially to secure the person’s release unless lawful grounds are shown for their detention (e.g., cannot be detained without cause or beyond a specific period like 72 hours without judicial review).
- Jurisdiction (Fueros)
- Sets of laws, customs, and privileges originating in the Middle Ages that remained present in certain territories, such as those of the former Crown of Aragon and Navarre in Spain, granting them some autonomy.
- Tariffs
- Customs taxes applied to imported goods (import tariffs) and sometimes exported goods (export tariffs).
- Age of Enlightenment
- The 18th century, characterized by an intellectual and cultural movement emphasizing reason, individualism, skepticism, and science.
18th Century Europe: Economy and Society (Unit 1)
Old Regime Agriculture and Land Ownership
Agriculture was primarily for subsistence. Land largely belonged to the clergy and nobility. Most farmers were peasants who worked the land for lords (gentlemen) and also had to pay various taxes and dues.
Economic Growth and Population Increase
The 18th century experienced relative international peace following long conflicts like the Thirty Years’ War and the War of the Spanish Succession (ended by the Treaty of Utrecht), leading to a period of international balance. The population increased, improving the economic situation. This population growth led to increased demand for products and rising prices. To gain more profit, production increased. Monarchies financed manufacturing and protected commercial companies. Communications improved with the creation of roads and canals. Colonial trade experienced the biggest growth.
18th Century Social Structure: The Three Estates
There was tremendous civil inequality. Society was divided into two main groups:
- The Privileged Estates: Nobility and Clergy. They enjoyed exemptions from taxes and held special rights.
- The Unprivileged: The Third Estate, comprising everyone else, from wealthy merchants to poor peasants.
The Privileged Estates: Nobility and Clergy
The nobility lived off rents from their lands and accumulated wealth. The clergy also lived off income, including the tithe (a tax of roughly 10% on agricultural produce). The clergy was divided into the higher clergy (often from noble families) and the lower clergy (closer to the common people).
The Unprivileged: The Third Estate
This vast group included:
- The Bourgeoisie: Great artisans, merchants, bankers, lawyers, and officials. Despite their wealth, they lacked the privileges of the nobility.
- The Urban Popular Classes: Workers, servants, soldiers, small artisans.
- Farmers/Peasants: The largest group, ranging from small landowners to landless laborers.
Enlightenment and Political Revolutions
The Enlightenment: Ideas and Impact
The Enlightenment was an intellectual movement developed in Europe during the 18th century. It questioned all the principles of the Old Regime. Enlightenment thinkers defended knowledge, reason, human happiness, progress, and education.
Enlightened Despotism Reforms
Enlightened Despotism refers to reformist policies adopted by some absolute monarchs who were influenced by Enlightenment ideas (e.g., Frederick the Great of Prussia, Catherine the Great of Russia, Joseph II of Austria). They aimed to improve administration, justice, and welfare but without relinquishing their absolute power.
England’s Path to Constitutional Monarchy
Since the Middle Ages, England had limited royal power through Parliament, which consisted of the House of Lords and the House of Commons. Key events include:
- In 1649, King Charles I was executed, and a republic was proclaimed.
- Oliver Cromwell eventually turned the republic into a military dictatorship.
- In 1660, the monarchy was restored with Charles II.
- In 1679, during Charles II’s reign, Parliament passed the Habeas Corpus Act, strengthening individual liberties against arbitrary imprisonment.
American Revolution: Causes and Foundation
Key causes of the American Revolution included:
- Taxes imposed by the metropolis (Great Britain) without colonial consent.
- A commercial monopoly favouring Great Britain.
- Lack of political representation for the colonies in the English Parliament.
The resulting United States Constitution enshrined principles such as:
- The separation of powers (legislative, executive, judicial).
- A republican form of government.
- A federal structure, dividing power between the national government and state governments.