Earth Systems, Economic Geography, and Global Development

Earth as a Natural/Physical Environmental System

Earth’s Position in Space

Earth orbits the sun at 67,000 mph, maintaining a delicate balance between gravity and velocity.

Life exists due to Earth’s stable distance from the sun, allowing liquid water and habitable temperatures.

Earth as an Energy/Matter System

All changes on Earth result from energy: inputs, storage, transformation, or outputs.

Two primary energy sources:

Solar Energy: Drives photosynthesis, weather, and food webs.

Internal Earth Energy: Causes tectonic activity, earthquakes, and volcanic eruptions.

Solar Energy Pathways

Photosynthesis: Converts sunlight into chemically bonded energy (food, fossil fuels).

Heat Energy: Drives weather systems (e.g., hurricanes, tornadoes).

Energy Flow

Energy flows into, through, and out of Earth’s system.

Laws of Thermodynamics: Energy is neither created nor destroyed, only transformed.

Matter in the System

Earth is a closed matter system: Matter is recycled (e.g., water, carbon).

Examples:

Carbon cycle: Plants absorb CO₂, animals exhale it.

Water cycle: Rain → reservoirs → consumption → treatment → reuse.

Human Impact on Energy/Matter Systems

Humans alter energy and matter flows through technology and resource extraction.

Examples:

Overuse of the Ogallala Aquifer for irrigation.

Burning fossil fuels releases stored carbon into the atmosphere.

Dynamic Earth System

Earth’s systems are interconnected and constantly changing.

Examples:

Tectonic activity reshapes continents and oceans.

Climate change alters ecosystems and landscapes.

Cultural Landscapes

Human activity transforms natural landscapes into cultural landscapes (e.g., cities, farms).

Hi-tech societies create more modified landscapes than low-tech societies.

Human-Environment Relationship

Environmental Determinism: Environment shapes culture (outdated).

Cultural Determinism: Culture overcomes environment (also outdated).

Cultural Ecology: Two-way relationship between environment and culture.

Population Growth & Resource Use

Global population has grown exponentially:

1 billion (1830) → 2 billion (1930) → 8 billion (2023).

Carrying capacity depends on technology and resource availability.

Future Challenges

Resource depletion (soil, water, energy).

Climate change and pollution threaten ecosystems.

Debate:

Technological Fix: Optimism about solving problems with innovation.

Resource Pessimism: Advocates for conservation and sustainable practices.

Fears of ‘Plantation Disaster Capitalism’ Mount in Wake of Maui Fires

Key Concepts

Context of the Maui Fires

Deadliest U.S. wildfire in over a century: 115+ deaths, 1,000+ missing.

Lahaina, a historic Hawaiian town, was destroyed by fires fueled by hurricane winds.

Disaster Capitalism

Definition: Exploitation of crises for profit, often at the expense of public resources.

Plantation Disaster Capitalism: A unique form in Hawaii, rooted in colonialism and resource exploitation.

Examples:

Real estate agents pressuring fire survivors to sell ancestral land.

Corporations hoarding water for commercial use (e.g., luxury resorts, golf courses).

Historical Background

Colonialism:

1893 coup by American expatriates & sugar planters overthrew the Hawaiian Kingdom.

U.S. annexed Hawaii in 1898; statehood in 1959.

Resource Exploitation:

Sugar & pineapple plantations diverted water, transforming Lahaina from a lush area to a desert.

Water Conflicts

West Maui Land Co. (WML):

Accused of using the fire crisis to gain control over water resources.

Delayed water release for firefighting due to bureaucratic hurdles.

State Response:

Governor Josh Green suspended water regulations, raising concerns about corporate exploitation.

Community Resistance

Nā ‘Ohana O Lele: A coalition demanding:

• Time for healing before rebuilding.
• Community-led planning.
• Transparency in government decisions (upholding Hawaii’s Sunshine Law).

Legal Action: Residents sued over the reassignment of a water official, Kaleo Manuel, alleging lack of transparency.

Political & Environmental Concerns

Governor Green’s Role:

Criticized for blaming water conflicts on community opposition.

Pledged to prioritize local input in rebuilding but faced skepticism.

Environmentalists’ Perspective:

Support water reserves for firefighting but oppose corporate hoarding for profit.

Broader Implications

Climate Justice:

Advocates call for returning control of land & water to Indigenous communities.

Rebuilding should focus on local resilience, not external profit motives.

National Attention: President Biden visited Maui, promising to rebuild according to community wishes.

Geographic Perspective & Economic Geography Cheat Sheet

1. What is Geography?

Study of Earth as the home of humankind

Examines places, relationships between people & environments

Spatial Perspective: Who/What, Where, When, How, Why

2. Spatial Concepts

Spatial Distributions: Precipitation, wealth/poverty, CO₂ emissions

Spatial Processes: Why distributions exist (e.g., economic inequality)

Spatial Predictions: Decision-making, future trends, policy planning

3. Economic Geography

Definition: Study of spatial processes in production & distribution of goods/services

Key Aspects: Research, extraction, production, marketing, transportation, consumption

4. Economy & Resources

Needs vs. Wants vs. Demand:

Needs (food, shelter), Wants (luxury), Demand (money + desire)

Resource Types:

Renewable (solar, wind) vs. Nonrenewable (fossil fuels)

Human resources (labor, skills) vs. Natural resources (minerals, land)

5. Human-Environment Relationship

Cultural Ecology: Environment affects people, & people alter the environment

Two Views on Resources:

Optimism: Technology will create solutions

Pessimism: Conservation needed, resources are finite

6. Global Economy & International Trade

World Economy: Networks, trade routes, institutions shaping global wealth

Economic Power Shifts:

Past hegemons: Spain (1500s), UK (1800s), US (1900s)

China as the next hegemon?

7. Globalization & Its Effects

Definition: Increasing global interconnection in economy, culture, politics

Cultural Impact:

Homogenization: Similar cultural traits worldwide

Americanization: Spread of US brands, values

Cultural Imperialism: Dominant cultures influencing others

8. Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) & Multinational Corporations (MNCs)

MNCs (e.g., GE, Apple): Operate across multiple countries

FDI: Corporations invest in foreign countries, shaping global markets

9. Major Global Challenges

Resource Depletion: Overuse of Earth’s natural assets

Economic Uncertainty: Supply-demand shifts, inflation, geopolitical tensions

Climate Change: Environmental degradation affecting economic stability

1. Historical Context of Capitalism

Feudalism to Capitalism:

Feudalism (5th-9th centuries) was characterized by aristocratic nobility controlling land, which was the primary source of wealth & power. Tenant farmers paid rent to landowners.

The transition to capitalism began in Europe, particularly in Northern Italy (e.g., Florence, Venice, Genoa), where wealthy merchants emerged with commercial ties to Southwest Asia & control over resources like silver mines & banking.

Great Britain later became a central player in the development of capitalism.

2. Fundamentals of Capitalism

Markets:

Capitalism revolves around markets where goods & services (commodities) are bought & sold for profit.

Markets are competitive, with large producers often dominating & influencing prices.

Class Relations:

Capitalism introduced a hierarchy based on wealth, replacing feudal aristocracy with a merchant class.

Labor became a commodity, transforming peasants & serfs into a working class.

Finance:

Money became the measure of all worth, with time, space, & labor quantified in monetary terms.

3. Colonialism & Global Capitalism

Colonialism:

European powers established colonies to extract raw materials & create a global system of commodity production & consumption.

This led to the uneven development of wealth, with Europe at the center & colonies on the periphery.

Uneven Development: Capitalism produces uneven spatial development, with varying levels of economic growth, wealth, & poverty across regions.

Colonialism exacerbated this by restructuring colonized economies around primary sectors (e.g., cash crops, mining) & suppressing industrial growth to avoid competition.

4. Industrial Revolution & Its Consequences

Industrialization:

The Industrial Revolution (mid-18th century) transformed production through technological innovations like the steam engine & factory systems.

Productivity surged, making goods more affordable & improving living standards, but also creating exploitative working conditions.

Urbanization: Industrialization led to rapid urbanization as people migrated to cities for factory jobs.

Global Markets: The Industrial Revolution accelerated international trade & finance, with early industrializers like Britain dominating global markets.

5. Colonialism’s Effects

Economic Restructuring: Colonies were forced into primary sector economies, exporting raw materials & importing finished goods.

Social & Cultural Impact: Colonialism created dual societies with small native elites & impoverished majorities.

Western culture, including Christianity & education, was imposed on colonized populations.

Polarized Geographies: Infrastructure like ports & railroads was designed to facilitate resource extraction, not local development.

6. End of Colonialism & Neo-Colonialism

Independence Movements:

After World War II, colonies in Africa & Asia gained independence, often through violent struggles.

Neo-Colonialism:

While direct colonial control ended, developed countries continue to exert indirect control over developing nations through economic, political, & cultural means.

Why is Economic Growth Uneven?

Historical Processes: The spatial distribution of wealth & economic activities reflects centuries of capitalist development & colonial exploitation.

Capital Investment & Disinvestment: Uneven development is driven by where capital is invested or withdrawn, creating cycles of growth & decline in different regions.

Global Systems: The legacy of colonialism & the structure of global capitalism perpetuate inequalities between developed & developing nations.

9.3 Explaining Global Stratification Key Concepts & Main Theories

Modernization Theory: Focuses on cultural values & practices.

Dependency Theory: Focuses on historical exploitation & structural inequality.

Modernization Theory Core Argument

Wealthy nations became rich because they developed values & practices conducive to economic growth (e.g., hard work, innovation, future orientation).

Poor nations remain poor because they cling to traditional beliefs & practices that hinder industrialization & modernization.

Historical Context

Protestant Ethic: Max Weber argued that Protestant values (e.g., hard work, material success) fueled Western Europe’s economic rise.

Cultural Barriers: Poor nations lack the “correct” cultural traits for economic success.

Implications for Poverty Reduction

Poor nations must adopt the values & practices of wealthy nations to achieve economic growth.

Financial aid from wealthy nations may be wasted if poor nations do not change their cultural practices.

Blames poor nations for their own poverty.

Ignores the role of historical exploitation & structural inequality.

Dependency Theory Core Argument

Poor nations are poor because they were colonized & exploited by wealthy nations.

Colonization stripped poor nations of resources, enslaved or exploited their populations, & prevented economic development.

Historical Context

Colonialism: European nations extracted resources & wealth from colonies, leaving them economically dependent.

Neocolonialism: Multinational corporations continue to exploit poor nations through cheap labor & resource extraction.

Implications for Poverty Reduction

Wealthy nations & corporations must stop exploiting poor nations.

Poor nations should limit imports & foreign investment to protect their economies.

Criticism

Cannot explain why some non-colonized nations are poor.

Does not account for the success of some former colonies (e.g., Hong Kong).

Comparing the Theories Modernization Theory

Focuses on cultural factors.

Suggests poor nations need to adopt Western values & practices.

Dependency Theory

Focuses on structural factors.

Suggests global inequality results from historical & ongoing exploitation.

Sociological Preference

Most sociologists favor dependency theory due to its emphasis on structural inequality & historical context.

Case Study: Haiti Modernization Perspective

Attributes Haiti’s poverty to a “culture of poverty” (e.g., lack of entrepreneurialism, social mistrust).

Suggests Western nations should teach Haitians how to adopt values conducive to economic growth.

Dependency Perspective

Attributes Haiti’s poverty to its history of colonialism & exploitation by France & the U.S.

Highlights the impact of debt, deforestation, & political instability caused by external forces.

Conclusion

Both cultural & structural factors likely contribute to Haiti’s poverty.

Strategies for Reducing Global Poverty Modernization Theory

Focus on changing cultural values & practices in poor nations.

Provide education & training to foster economic growth.

Dependency Theory

End exploitation by wealthy nations & multinational corporations.

Promote self-sufficiency & limit foreign interference in poor nations.

Sociological Approach

Address structural inequalities (e.g., colonialism, neocolonialism).

Reduce gender & ethnic inequalities to empower marginalized groups.

Microfinancing & Direct Aid

Provide small loans & resources directly to poor individuals, especially women.

Evidence shows women are more likely to invest in family needs (e.g., food, education).