Earth’s Climate, Weather, and Political Systems
Earth’s Climate and Weather
The sun is the main source of energy on land.
The atmosphere is the gaseous layer surrounding the Earth, mostly composed of nitrogen and oxygen.
The Elements of Weather
- Temperature: Reflects the amount of heat in the atmosphere.
- Precipitation: Water from the atmosphere that falls to the surface as rain, hail, or snow.
- Humidity: The quantity of water vapor in the air.
- Atmospheric Pressure: The weight of the atmosphere at a given point on Earth. Measured with a barometer.
- Wind: The movement of air, caused by differences in atmospheric pressure.
Climatic Zones
- Warm Climates: Equatorial, Tropical, Desert.
- Temperate Climates: Mediterranean, Oceanic (or Atlantic), Continental.
- Cold Climates: Polar, High Mountain.
Factors Influencing Climate
- Altitude: Causes lower temperatures and increased precipitation.
- The sea moderates temperatures and is a source of humidity.
- Microclimate: A very small area with its own particular climate.
- Climatic Disasters: Droughts, floods, hurricanes, and heat waves.
State of the World
A state is the top political and administrative unit which governs a territory.
Citizens are the people who live in the territory of a state. Citizens have rights and obligations.
State Power: Includes the police to keep order, the defense forces, the diplomatic corps to take charge of international relations, and a set of officials for administration and utilities.
State Functions: Keep public order, defend the territory, establish international relations, make laws, provide services, and regulate the economy.
Democracy
This word comes from the union of two Greek words: demos (people) and kratos (government): government by the people.
Citizen Participation:
- Everyone over a certain age should be able to vote.
- All persons and parties who wish to respect the rules can stand for election.
- Programs can be exposed freely without censorship.
- Elections are held periodically.
- The cleanliness of the results is ensured.
The Separation of Powers: Parliament has legislative power, the government has executive power, and the judges have judicial power.
A Constitution defines the rights and obligations of citizens and limits the power of institutions.
Dictatorship
Citizens do not participate in the government, which does not respect any law other than that which it dictates itself, nor does it recognize human rights.
- Secular State: Laws are not based on any religious doctrine, and the public may profess the religion they wish or not profess any.
- Confessional States: The practice of other religions is permitted.
- Theocracies: There is an official religion, and its sacred books become law.
Forms of Government
- Monarchies: States where the head of state is a king, who holds office by birthright and transmits it to their children. They can be democratic or dictatorial.
- Republics: The head of state is a president. Citizens elect the president, while in dictatorships, the groups that control power appoint the president.
Territorial Organization of States
In a state, various types of government institutions are distinguished:
- State Institutions: Those that have the power to apply their decisions throughout the state. These include the parliament, the general government, and the higher courts.
- Regional and Local Institutions: They can only implement their decisions in the territory to which they belong.
Types of States
- Centralized States: Local and regional institutions rely on state institutions. Mayors of municipalities have few powers, and officials from different regions are chosen by the state administration.
- Decentralized States: Regions have their own institutions. The state holds the greatest power, but municipalities and regions have wide powers in their territories.
To facilitate relations between states, they sign treaties, covenants, and agreements: documents where states undertake to take certain actions on a specific matter. But sometimes conflicts arise: economic or military.
International Organizations are associations established voluntarily by states to address communal affairs and make decisions on these issues.
There are inequalities among European states, according to their extent, location, shape, population, and wealth.