Effective Argumentation: Structure, Language, and Persuasion
Effective Argumentation
Structure and Clarity
A key aspect of argumentation is the order of ideas, which ensures the text’s comprehensibility. Structuring content into paragraphs and connecting them effectively is crucial. Ideas should be presented clearly and directly, focusing on essential information. Arguments should also be compelling, aiming to convince or persuade the audience.
Persuasive Techniques
Effective resources for persuasion include examples and comparisons (progressing from concrete to abstract). Repetition can reinforce arguments.
Language
Vocabulary
Use specialized vocabulary for scientific or technical topics. For general or subjective subjects, standard language is preferred.
Syntax
Follow logical reasoning (deductive or inductive). Primarily use complete sentences (coordinate and subordinate).
Verbs
Predominantly use present tense verbs.
Standard Language Variety
Standard language serves as a model for written and oral communication. It is characterized by:
- Regulation: A reference model exists for speakers (e.g., Royal Spanish Academy).
- Adaptability: It adapts to widespread changes.
- Variations: Different rules or sub-norms exist based on dialects of educated speakers.
- Dissemination: It is spread through institutions like the Royal Spanish Academy, education, and media.
Language Varieties
Dialects, Sociolects, and Idiolects
Dialects: Historically, a dialect is a language preceding another (e.g., Romance languages derived from Latin). It can also be a variety of a language without a distinct grammar or literature, not used for cultured communication (e.g., Andalusian, a dialect of Castilian).
Sociolects: Characterize defined social groups (e.g., youth, professionals).
Idiolects: The individual’s unique dialect, reflecting geographic, social, and generational influences.
Text Structures
Training Texts
These texts typically have two parts:
- Objective: States the text’s purpose, which can be brief or a short explanation.
- Instructions: Presents steps (orders, advice, actions) in a logical or chronological order. Ideas are usually in separate paragraphs, sometimes with typographic elements (e.g., numbers or bullets).
Predictive Texts
These texts inform about future events (e.g., horoscopes, prophecies, weather). They can be narrative, descriptive, explanatory, or argumentative, but are future-oriented. Information is sorted by topic. Future tense, time adverbs, temporal connectors, and conditional sentences are common.
Etymology
Word Origins
- Guardian: Arabic
- Mayor: Arabic
- Rico (Rich): Germanic
- Slate: Pre-Roman
- Dog: Pre-Roman
- War: Germanic
- Winning: Germanic
Basque Language
Origins and Characteristics
Basque is a language isolate. Two origin hypotheses exist:
- Relation to Caucasian languages.
- Relation to an ancient Iberian language present before the Roman conquest.
Basque survived primarily as a spoken language, with a rich oral tradition (e.g., bertsolaris poetry). The first written work appeared in 1545. 16th-18th century literature is mainly religious. The Royal Academy of the Basque Language was created in the early 20th century. Two main dialect groups exist: Central (Gipuzkoa) and Eastern (Labourdin, High Navarrese, Souletin, and Low Navarrese). The Academy created standardized Basque (Euskera Batua) based on Gipuzkoan and Labourdin.
Advertising and Media
Referent, Code, and Function
Referent: The product or service, often becoming a symbol (of beauty, power, etc.). Advertised products often address personality needs (youth, beauty, elegance, prestige).
Code: Mixed, involving multiple codes. Visual media (newspapers, posters) use written language, iconic (pictures, drawings), and graphic codes. Audio media (radio) use oral language and sound. Audiovisual media (TV, film) use all of these, plus moving images. Images have a strong emotional impact, while language is more rational.
Function: Primarily conative (persuading and encouraging purchase). Phatic function grabs attention. Referential function provides product information. Poetic function enhances connotative values and aids memorability.
Linguistics
Discourse Markers
- Additives: Indicate addition (e.g., moreover, furthermore).
- Reformulators: Restate and emphasize (e.g., anyway, in any case).
- Conversational: Show attitude and certainty (e.g., well, listen).
- Comment Markers: Introduce new comments (e.g., as I was saying).
Phoneme Evolution (Golden Age)
- Intervocalic b and v merged into b.
- Intervocalic s became voiceless f.
- g, j, and x became j or g before e and i.
Dialectal Features
- Andalusian: Loss of final s, use of ustedes for vosotros, s and z pronunciation variations.
- Murcian: Diminutive forms (-ico, –iquio), influences from Aragonese and Catalan, archaic Castilian, and Arabic.
- Leonese: Closed final vowels, –in/-ina diminutives, specific vocabulary, compound perfect tense.
- American Spanish: s, c, and z pronunciation variations, ll pronounced as y, aspiration or loss of final s, confusion of r and l.
Film Techniques
- Linear Narrative: A single action told chronologically.
- Frame: The smallest unit (a single photograph on film).
- Traveling Shot: Camera moves on rails, allowing different perspectives and movement.
- Technical Script: Adds technical details (lighting, framing, cast) to the literary script.
Romance Languages
Romance languages derived from Latin after the decline of the Roman Empire (e.g., Portuguese, Galician, Castilian, Catalan, Occitan, Italian, Romanian, Romansh, Sardinian, French).
Sabir Language
A language developed for communication between people with different languages, often arising from colonialism. They are usually short-lived.
Novel
A literary prose work narrating a fictional or partly fictional action, aiming to provide aesthetic pleasure through descriptions of events, characters, passions, and customs.
Syntax Examples
- Relative Clause: This is the garden where the children played.
- Subject Clause: He cared to tell the truth.
- Adverbial Clause (Causal): He was suspended for not answering.
- Adverbial Clause (Concessive): He is cheerful even when enduring sadness.
Verb Analysis
- Han ido (They have gone): han (morph) – ir (lex) – ido (morph). Present perfect compound indicative. Perfective.
- Saltaron (They jumped): saltar (lex) – aron (morph). Preterite perfect simple indicative. Perfective.
- Notaba (He/She noted): notar (lex) – aba (morph). Imperfect preterite indicative. Imperfective.
- Patan (They kick): patear (lex) – an (morph). Present indicative. Imperfective.
- Cuestionaremos (We will question): cuestionar (lex) – emos (morph). Future indicative. Imperfective.
- Escribieras (You wrote): escribir (lex) – ieras (morph). Imperfect subjunctive. Imperfective.