Effective Communication: Elements, Functions, and Text Properties
ITEM 3: COMMUNICATION
1. Communication Concept
Communication is the act of exchanging information between a sender and a receiver using signals or signs.
2. Schools of Communication
a) Non-Human Communication
This type of communication features animals or machines, such as a handshake between individuals.
b) Human Communication
Human communication is fundamental. Without it, no other form of communication would exist. It is an essential characteristic of human beings, who can be defined as “communicating beings.”
Linguistic Communication: This form of communication is based on the use of language. Signals and signs used are words and phrases. It is considered the most developed form of communication.
Nonlinguistic Communication: This form is based on signs and signals we use when interacting with others, including traffic signs, color coding, iconic signs, conscious and unconscious gestures, and the proximity or distance we maintain while communicating.
3. Elements of Linguistic Communication
Transmitter and Receiver: These are the entities that emit and receive information, with interchangeable roles.
Sign Language: This refers to the encoded information that is transmitted, encompassing both physical and mental aspects. It can be considered a descriptive text.
Code: This comprises the grammar and vocabulary that enable us to construct and understand messages.
Channel: This is the pathway through which signs reach the receiver. In oral communication, the channel is air.
Location and Context: The situation is shaped by time and space, along with the context surrounding the linguistic signs. These elements are crucial for fully understanding the message of a text.
4. Sign Language Functions
Representative Function: This function is established through the relationship between the sign and the referent (context). We use signs to refer to our surroundings and report them neutrally and objectively. This function is predominant in journalistic and scientific language.
Expressive Function: This function arises from the relationship between the sign and the transmitter. When we talk about things, we also reveal something about ourselves. The sign expresses our emotions, moods, personality, and way of life. This function is evident when we use augmentatives, diminutives, derogatory terms, first-person verbs and pronouns, and the subjunctive mood. It typically dominates in poems and songs.
Appellate Function (or Conative): This function is created through the relationship between the sign and the receiver. The sign calls upon the receiver. Our communication acts as a call to the recipient. This function is performed when we call, ask, request, plead, etc. It is recognizable through the repeated use of the second person, questions, and exclamations. It is commonly used in advertising and political language.
If we want to express something, we use the expressive function. If we want someone to do something immediately, we employ the appellate function. And if we are simply conveying information, we will use the representative function.
TOPIC 4: THE PROPERTIES OF TEXTS
1. Texts
Texts are linguistic signs used to communicate messages.
Texts are delimited by pauses: a final pause indicates the end of the message. There are also partial pauses, used for breathing and to allow the receiver time to process the information.
2. The Consistency of a Text
A text must always be consistent because a message should be clearly conveyed.
In essence, coherence means agreement between the parts of a text: all elements must relate to the same message.
3. Cohesion of Text: Mechanisms of Cohesion
A text has cohesion when its various parts are linked together. This quality allows the listener or reader to perceive the text as a unified whole.
Cohesion exists in varying degrees: a text can be more or less cohesive depending on how it employs the following mechanisms:
Repetitions: The repetition of words or meanings can serve as a mechanism of cohesion.
Substitutions: This mechanism complements repetition. Once something has been mentioned, it doesn’t need to be repeated verbatim. We can use signs that allude to it without explicitly repeating it. Pronouns are a prime example, and they don’t always replace nouns; they can also replace an idea or a previously mentioned fact.
Links (Discourse Markers): These are conjunctions, phrases, and adverbs that function as transitions between ideas. The main types of text links are:
Time: When narrating or recounting events, we use temporal conjunctions and phrases to help the recipient understand the sequence of events accurately.
Order: When presenting an idea, a theory, etc.
Cause and Consequence: To highlight cause-and-effect relationships.
Contrast: When comparing or contrasting things, ideas, perspectives, etc.
4. Types of Texts
Simple texts consist of a single word or sentence, while complex texts are composed of several statements, divided into sections, with a specific structure.
There are numerous situations in which we communicate using sign language. Each situation generates a different type of text: introducing someone, presenting something, sharing an experience, expressing gratitude, apologizing, making a statement, filing a complaint, expressing agreement or disagreement, giving directions, etc.
Descriptions: The issuer “shows” the listener or reader what a person, object, or animal is like, “painting” a picture with words.
Narrative Texts: We use this type of text when recounting something that happened in the past.
Expository Texts: We use an expository text when presenting a topic, theory, or problem to facilitate the listener’s understanding.
Argumentative Texts: We use an argumentative text when defending an opinion on a topic, supporting it with reasons and arguments.
Spoken Texts: These are texts constructed between two or more participants.
Mixing and Matching: Under normal circumstances, these text types are often mixed, but we can identify which type is predominant.