Empires in Turmoil: Austro-Hungarian, Russian & Colonial Expansion
The Austro-Hungarian Empire (1830-1916)
Francis Joseph, a deeply conservative ruler since 1848, faced tensions from the diverse nations within his empire. The most prominent were Austria and Hungary (Magyars). This was resolved through a dual monarchy, with the emperor holding the titles of both Emperor of Austria and King of Hungary. Each had its own parliament, but shared military, foreign policy, and economic policy. The monarchy remained largely absolutist.
The economy stagnated, and a needed industrial and technological renovation did not occur. Despite this, the culture flourished. Foreign policy focused on maintaining peace, with attempts to expand into the Balkans. In 1878, Bosnia and Herzegovina were occupied. In 1914, war was declared on Serbia following the assassination of the heir to the throne and his wife.
The Russian Empire
Spanning 22 million km², the Russian Empire was geographically, economically, and demographically complex. The Czars colonized Siberia. With 170 million people, Russia was the most populous state, encompassing diverse languages and nationalities.
Tsarist Russia Under Nicholas II
Nicholas II’s economic and social policies were significantly outdated. He maintained an absolute, theocratic monarchy, concentrating all power in his hands, despite the existence of the Duma parliament. Political freedom was nonexistent, leading to political upheavals from disadvantaged social groups. The socio-economic system resembled a feudal regime.
In 1861, the Tsar decreed the liberation of slaves, granting peasants freedom but requiring them to pay compensation to landowners. Industrialization was slow due to a lack of investment. Foreign capital, particularly from France, was used to invest in railways, oil, and iron ore. Rising taxes were implemented to pay interest on these investments. Industry was concentrated around St. Petersburg and Moscow, with workers facing exploitation through low wages and long workdays.
Colonization: Pathways and Forms of Domination
Colonization efforts before 1870 were largely unsuccessful. Initiatives originated from:
- Scientific Explorations: Geographical societies promoted colonial settlement and mapped routes.
- Missionary Activity: Missionaries followed explorers, discovering new geographical information.
- Government Exploitation: Governments capitalized on these discoveries for political gain.
- Treaties with Indigenous Peoples: Agreements were established to protect interests and promote colonial ideology.
- Military Occupation: Facilitated economic exploitation.
Forms of Domination
- Colony: Direct rule by the colonizing power through a governor and institutions.
- Protectorate: Local government controlled by the colonizing power, which manages the army and foreign policy.
- Metropolitan Territories: Colonies viewed as extensions of the colonizing territory, with inhabitants represented in its institutions.
- Dominion: Self-governing territories (e.g., Canada, Australia) with independent foreign policy, though still linked to the colonizing power.
- Leases: Agreements granting foreign powers control over native territories for commercial interests.
The Scramble for Africa: The Berlin Conference
Before 1880, European intervention in Africa was limited to:
- West Coast: Trading posts involved in the slave trade, controlled by the UK, Spain, and Portugal.
- Mediterranean: Algeria, a French settlement colony, expanding into Tunisia and Morocco.
- Egypt: The Suez Canal’s opening increased Egypt’s strategic value, leading to British occupation.
- South Africa: The Cape Colony, under British control since 1815, saw the discovery of diamonds and gold.
Tensions arose due to British occupation of Egypt, German colonial claims, and issues in the Congo Basin. The Berlin Conference, convened in 1885 by Bismarck, aimed to avoid conflicts and establish rules for trade and territorial occupation. Key outcomes included:
- Freedom of navigation on the Congo and Niger rivers.
- Free trade in Central Africa.
- Creation of the Congo Free State under Leopold II of Belgium.
- Requirement for effective occupation of territories.
Expansion into Asia
Most Asian countries possessed strong political structures, enabling them to resist colonial powers. The opening of the Suez Canal in 1869 intensified colonization efforts in Asia, with European powers (France, Russia, UK), and later the U.S., participating.