Empiricism: A Comparison of Locke and Hume
Empiricism (Locke and Hume)
Elements of Knowledge
All knowledge comes from sensory experience. There are no innate ideas; all ideas are acquired.
The individual mind is a blank slate (tabula rasa) upon which sensory knowledge (visual, auditory, tactile, etc.) is inscribed.
To clarify this, Hume states: “If by innate we understand everything that is natural, all our perceptions are innate, inborn. If we understand what is original and not copied, all our impressions are innate, but not at birth. There is nothing innate.”
Perceptions are of two types: impressions and ideas.
| Impressions | Ideas |
|---|---|
| Original (the ones we directly obtain) | Copies of impressions |
| Vivid (strong) | Faded (less intense than impressions) |
| Immediate | Subsequent |
Clear (clear and precise)
Seeing, smelling, touching, hearing, etc. | Less obvious (less clarity and precision)
Thinking about what has been seen, smelled, heard, touched, etc. |
Metaphysical Concepts
Locke and Hume held differing views on the idea of substance. For Locke, substance is an “I know not what” that supports the qualities of a being. For Hume, it is impossible to know if substances exist, as they are beyond human knowledge.
Locke, despite his empiricist leanings, did not deny the existence of substance. His empiricism is considered conservative. Hume’s empiricism, however, is radical, taking empiricist principles to their extreme.
| Locke | Hume |
|---|---|
| Self: The idea of self is an intuition, impossible to doubt. We are aware that we doubt, imagine, and affirm. | Self: There is no permanent and unchanging perception of the self. “Therefore, I do not know what I am, nor whether there was.” I can have many perceptions about myself, even contradictory ones, but I cannot deduce that there is something underlying these perceptions. |
| God: The idea of God is a certainty, but a demonstrative one. Within our human capacities, it is associated with the idea of something infinite and limitless. | God: There is no sensory perception of God whatsoever. Therefore, attempting to define God or assert God’s existence is absurd. God is beyond the limits of human knowledge. |
| World: The idea of the world is a sensory certainty. Thanks to our senses, we know of the existence of things around us. | World: There are perceptions of the world, but none are permanent or unchanging. Furthermore, we can only perceive the ideas that surround us, not a simple superposition of them. “This exceeds my ability.” |
Types of Study: Relations of Ideas and Matters of Fact
- Relations of Ideas: These are subject to human reason and belong to formal logic and mathematics. They are propositions where the predicate is contained within the subject, making its opposite impossible. To contradict such a proposition would be a logical fallacy. These propositions are tautological, true by reason, and permanently logical.
Examples: “The triangle has three angles,” “Bodies are extended.”
Locke calls these “true by reason.” - Matters of Fact: These are also objects of human reason, but belong to empirical science, moral philosophy, and psychology. They are not tautological. Their truth depends on experience, and their opposite is possible. They are based on the principles of causality and contiguity.
Examples: “Arachnids have four pairs of legs,” “Virtue is in the middle,” “Children, aged two, construct short sentences correctly.”
Locke calls these “true in fact.”
The Problem of Causality
“Everything that begins has a cause.” In time, the cause precedes the effect. For classical rationalists, this is a self-evident principle, impossible to doubt. However, for Hume, it is not. This principle is not clear and is based on habit or custom.
- We know cause and effect through experience. If we were to see a cause for the first time, we could not deduce its effect. Examples: Water – drowning, Fire – burning.
- Analyzing this relationship, all we know are “two adjacent objects in space (next to each other) and time (one before the other).” However, there are objects that appear this way but are not causally related. For example, two clocks striking an hour, one before the other.
- The operation of cause and effect (e.g., fire burning) is based on habit or custom. We assume that future events will resemble past events, but experience does not guarantee this.
Ethics and Politics
For Locke, morality is empirical, acquired through experience. We learn good and bad. A good action conforms to the law, while a bad action does not. Good and bad derive from pleasure and pain. Morality is universal, valid for all. However, we also need to know civil law and the customs of the society in which we live.
Regarding society, Locke believed all men are free and equal. They must defend their natural rights (life, liberty, and property), but sometimes must relinquish some rights for the good of the majority. Subjects must love one another, a principle of political liberalism. Locke opposed absolute monarchy.
Locke distinguishes between three powers:
- Legislative (creates laws): Elected by the people and can be removed if it fails its purpose. Rebellion is justified against tyranny.
- Executive (enforces laws)
- Federative (deals with wars and treaties)
Locke’s political theory influenced Montesquieu and North America.
For Hume, morality is emotional. Individuals act not out of reason, but feeling. Reason is a slave to passion. Moral feeling is the approval or rejection of certain attitudes and actions. It is selfless and natural. Reason tells us what is good and bad, but does not influence human behavior. Examples: theft and incest. Conclusion: “The moral sense is something other than judgment.” Reason’s only function is to tell us which actions are useful to society (good) and which are not (bad).
Regarding society, Hume believes it exists because it is useful to individuals, increasing strength, skill, and safety. The nucleus of society is the family. Political organization arises from the need for order and justice. Because natural justice is insufficient, governments are needed to provide justice and welfare. There is an “implied contract” between government and citizens: the government provides for the good of the citizens, and they recognize its authority due to its utility. When a government is not useful, there is no reason to obey its laws, and revolt is justified.