End of the Century Literature: Modernism in Spain
The Rise of Modernism
In the final years of the 19th century, a shift occurred in the existing aesthetic landscape. While Realism and Naturalism continued into the next century, young writers, influenced by a Romantic spirit, rebelled against the dominant sensibilities. These writers, known as Modernists, rejected the values and customs of bourgeois society.
Characteristics of Modernism
- Rejection of Bourgeois Values: Modernist writers embraced bohemianism, a lifestyle that defied social conventions. They viewed bourgeois society as incapable of understanding true art.
- Aestheticism: The ultimate aim of art was beauty. Ethics were subordinate to aesthetics. Literature’s purpose was not to reflect social realities, teach, or criticize, but to create beauty.
- Themes and Attitudes: Modernist writers explored exotic themes, autumnal gardens, and unconventional love. Melancholy, cynicism, and vital exhaustion were common attitudes.
Characteristics of Modernist Poetry
- Cult of Beauty: Poetry became the dominant genre, valued for its aesthetic qualities.
- Aristocratic and Refined Tone: Poets rejected vulgarity, opting for refined, exotic, and unreal settings.
- Rich Use of Color: Modernists employed a wide range of colors to enhance their imagery and evoke moods.
- Exquisite Language: Poets moved away from the lofty rhetoric of Romanticism, favoring carefully chosen words and sensory adjectives.
- Symbolism and Suggestion: Modernists preferred the power of suggestion and symbolism over direct, realistic representation. They believed that inner reality was richer than the external world.
- Legendary and Mythological Themes: Modernist poetry often drew inspiration from legends, myths, and cosmopolitan settings.
- Experimentation with Rhythm: While incorporating classical metrics, Modernists also experimented with new rhythms and verse forms, including the Alexandrine verse.
Key Figures of Spanish Modernism
Rubén Darío (1867-1916)
Born in Nicaragua, Rubén Darío traveled extensively and became acquainted with French literature, which heavily influenced his work. He is considered a leading figure of Spanish Modernism.
Themes:
- Eroticism: Darío’s poetry often explored love and desire, featuring mythological figures and gallant princes.
- Societal and Political Concerns: Some of his works reflected on Hispanic and American society.
- Devotion to Art: Darío frequently celebrated the power and importance of art in his poetry.
Style:
- Poetic Language: Darío’s poetry emphasized chromatic and musical values.
- Abundant Adjectives: He made extensive use of adjectives to create vivid imagery.
- Literary Figures: His work featured various literary devices, including anaphora and synesthesia.
- Lexical Innovation: Darío incorporated archaic words, neologisms, and bold combinations of language.
- Metric Experimentation: He experimented with different metrical forms, including the Alexandrine verse.
Significant Works:
- Azul: A blend of prose and verse showcasing Darío’s engagement with French literature and his penchant for rare and luxurious imagery.
- Prosas Profanas: This work highlights the rhythms of French prose and the characteristics of the new poetic sensibility, including colorful and exotic motifs.
- Cantos de Vida y Esperanza: This collection reflects a more somber tone, with themes of Hispanic bitterness and a painful sense of life.
Salvador Rueda and Manuel Machado
Salvador Rueda (1857-1933): A precursor to Spanish Modernism, Rueda anticipated some of the metrical innovations later adopted by Darío. His poetry is known for its vibrant and colorful imagery, musical rhythms, and bold use of composite metrics.
Manuel Machado (1874-1947): Born in Seville, Manuel Machado traveled to Paris and was influenced by French poetry. His work often explored Andalusian themes, eroticism, and the history of Spain. His poetry is characterized by its richness of color, graceful verses, and the treatment of popular Andalusian subjects.
Juan Ramón Jiménez (1881-1958)
Juan Ramón Jiménez was a prominent Spanish poet who began his career within the Modernist movement but eventually transcended it. He received the Nobel Prize in Literature in 1956.
Poetry:
- Cult of Beauty: Jiménez maintained a lifelong devotion to beauty as an ideal, although his approach evolved beyond the sensory focus of early Modernism.
- Poetry as Intuition: He believed that poetry was a product of intuition and could offer a unique understanding of the world.
- Poetry as Eternity: Jiménez saw poetry as a means of achieving immortality, a way to transcend the limitations of time and mortality.
Poetic Path:
- Romanticism and Modernism: Jiménez’s early work displayed Romantic and Modernist influences, characterized by short lines, melancholy, and symbolism.
- External Modernism: In this phase, he fully embraced Modernist techniques and language, employing longer lines, abundant adjectives, and a sophisticated lexicon.
- Naked Poetry: Jiménez later moved towards a more abstract and intellectual style, seeking “pure poetry.” His poems became shorter and more personal, with new symbols and a focus on introspection.
The Theater of the Time
Modernism also influenced the development of poetic drama, written in verse and often inspired by Spanish history. Eduardo Marquina and Francisco Villaespesa were notable playwrights in this style. However, the most significant playwright of the era was Jacinto Benavente, who achieved international recognition and was awarded the Nobel Prize in Literature in 1922. His works encompassed various genres, including rural dramas, cosmopolitan comedies, and social satires that critiqued the bourgeoisie.