England’s Industrial Revolution: Causes and Effects
England’s Industrial Revolution
Causes of the Industrial Revolution
The Industrial Revolution in England resulted from a conjunction of economic and technological changes. Several factors contributed to this transformative period:
Demographic Revolution
From the mid-18th century, Europe’s population experienced significant growth. The population rose from 140 million (1750) to 266 million (1850). Britain saw the most dramatic increase, doubling its population during the 18th century (from 5 to 10 million).
Causes:
- Increased agricultural production
- Advances in food hygiene and medicine
- The decline of major plagues and epidemics
Implications:
- Decreased mortality rates
- Increased birth rates
- Increased life expectancy
Agricultural Revolution
The growing population fueled increased food demand and higher agricultural prices, encouraging landowners to improve farming methods. Key changes included:
- Privatization of land
- Improved cultivation techniques
- Elimination of fallow land and the adoption of crop rotation systems (Norfolk system)
- Gradual mechanization of farming
- Introduction of new crops, leading to a more varied diet
The Age of Machines
The Industrial Revolution was marked by the rise of machines, initially powered by water. However, steam power, pioneered by James Watt’s invention in 1769, became the revolutionary energy source, fueled by coal.
Mechanization and the Factory System
Mechanization led to the factory system, concentrating workers and machines in factories and implementing the division of labor. The textile industry in Great Britain was the first to experience this transformation. The cotton industry, in particular, saw significant advancements. Key inventions included:
- The flying shuttle (1733)
- New spinning machines (water frame, spinning jenny)
- The power loom (1785)
Coal and Iron: The Steel Industry
The steel industry also experienced a revolution. Abraham Darby’s invention (1732) enabled the production of iron using coke. Later, Henry Bessemer developed a converter for transforming iron into steel.
Revolution in Transportation
Improvements in transportation were crucial. From the mid-18th century, Europe saw improvements in roads, the development of railways (initially for mines), and Stephenson’s steam locomotive (1829). The first passenger railway line opened between Manchester and Liverpool in 1830. In maritime transport, iron steamships replaced sailing vessels (first transatlantic voyages in 15 days, 1807-1847).
Industrial Capitalism and its Consequences
The Industrial Revolution fostered a market economy focused on increasingly larger markets, not just personal consumption. Improved transport systems boosted internal and foreign trade. Theories of free trade (laissez-faire) emerged, but Britain, seeking to maintain its dominance, also employed protectionist measures (tariffs).
Industrial Capitalism and Liberalism
Industrial capitalism and liberalism spread from Great Britain to the rest of Europe, the USA, and Japan. British scholars, such as Adam Smith, defined economic liberalism as:
- The pursuit of self-interest and maximum profit as the driving force of the economy (private property)
- A balance of diverse interests through market mechanisms (supply and demand)
- Minimal state intervention, allowing for the free development of individuals (free competition)
Industrial capitalism created a system with private property concentrated in the hands of a small group (the bourgeoisie) and workers who owned only their labor, exchanged for wages. The lack of planning in capitalism led to recurring economic crises (approximately every 20 years), caused by oversupply and accumulated stock. These crises resulted in increased unemployment.
Banks and Finance
Banks played a crucial role, providing capital to businesses and acting as intermediaries between savers and industry. The need for large investments led to the rise of corporations, with capital divided into shares traded on stock exchanges.
Expansion of Industrial Capitalism
By the early 19th century, industrialization had spread to France and Belgium. Between 1850 and 1870, Russia, Germany, the United States, and Japan industrialized. Southern Europe saw a mix of industrialized and rural areas, while much of Eastern Europe remained outside the industrialization process.
The Second Industrial Revolution
The second industrial revolution involved established industrial powers like Germany, the United States, and Japan.
New Energy Sources and Industries
- Electricity: Hydroelectric and central power plants began to replace coal and oil (1869).
- Oil: Initially mined in the U.S. in the mid-19th century, oil became crucial for automobiles (1885) and airplanes (Wright brothers, 1903).
- Metallurgy: New metals like stainless steel and aluminum emerged.
- Automobile industry: Henry Ford’s mass production of affordable cars.
- Chemical industry: Developed significantly in Germany, producing new fertilizers, pesticides, and chemical products.
- Reinforced concrete: Enabled the construction of skyscrapers.
A New Organization of Work
The 19th century saw the rise of mass production to increase productivity and lower prices. Taylorism, with its focus on the division of labor and specialized tasks, became a dominant method. This, combined with high capital investment, encouraged industrial concentration and led to agreements between companies to limit competition (cartels, trusts, holding companies, and monopolies).