English Clause Patterns and Sentence Elements
CLAUSE PATTERNS
VP is key element in a clause. Valency patterns: intransitive: S+V, monotransitive: S+V+DO, copular: S+V+SP and S+V+A, ditransitive: S+V+IO+DO, complex transitive: s+v+do+op and S+V+DO+A. Clause elements:
SUBJECT (noun phrase, occurs with all types of verbs, Subj pronouns are in nominative, precedes verb phrase except when inversion, determines number of VP, in a noun prhase of trans verb can be moved after verb to for passive with use of by, denotes the most important participnat in action with transitive verbs normally the agent, represent the topic though sometimes a clause requires a subj even if it hasn’t got meaning (dummy it pronoun).
OBJECT
Noun phrase, follows verb, only with trans verb, object prnoun in accusative, object NP of transit verb can be moved to become subject of passive. Valency patterns: monotransitive, ditransitive and complex trans.
Direct Obj
normally follows verb immediately, entity affected by action or process of verb can also express abstractions:I speak German. Sometimes direct object required even without meaning, then use of dummy it: take it easy.
Ind Obj
Occurs after ditransit verbs like give and tell, comes before direct object, can form passive: they told you/you were told. NOrmally denote people receiving or benefitin from action of verb.
PREDICATIVE:
can be AdjP, NP or PrepP, follow VP and if one the direct obj, charact preceding NP, two mahor types: SP- charact or specify the sujbect NP: John seemed ill. It immediately followS VP, main verb has to be copular (be, seem, become) OP: charact or specify DO NP: I cleaned the windows with scratches on them. Normally immediately follow direct obj, main verb ahs to be a complex transit. Like make, find, consider.
ADVERBIALS:
some verb take obligatory advls. (eg place, is) obligatory advbls have 2 patters: copular pattern and complex transitive pattern. Normaly express palce or direction, but alos manner or time. Optional advls: can be added to clause with any type of verb, normally are AdvP, PreP or NP, can be placed in different positions and more than one cna occur, ad additional info with wide variety of meaning: time, mamner, attitude, extent: I only had one coffee yesterday.
LONG VERB PHRASES
Correspond to the fairly tradit grammat notionof predicate. It includes ot only the VP but also any other clause element which follow the main verb.
TRULY PERIPHERAL ELEMENTS
Attachd to clause in losse way, but don’t form part of main message. Offten set off from the rest of the clause by punctuation (writing) or intonation (speech). Types:
Conjuntions:
coordinating and subordination conj: fixed in initial position in the clause even ahead of other peripheral adv: and of course, / since Anna and …
Parentheticals:
sett off from surrounding clause by parentheses or dashes (writing), e.G. One of her sisters (she had three) made her…
Prefaces:
NP placed before subject, typically have same ref as pers.Pron.: Anna would have her…
Tags
Normally added at the end of a clause, can be NP: It’s nice that car over there.
Question tags
She managed, didn’t she?. Declarative tags: I really liked it I did.
Inserts:
found in conv. Aminly to convery interactive meaning, can occur as stand-alone element or as peripheral: hello, right,…Some multi-word expression can be considered inserts because they have become so formulaic tha tthey seem like single units rather than syntactic construct. Thank you, you know.
Vocatives:
nouns or NP that normally refer to people and serve to identify the person-s being addressed: mum, I’m taking the dog for a walk or come on you boys.
THE ARTICLE:
Indefinite meanings expressed by a/an
Used only with singular countable nouns. It reduces the reference of the head noun to one indefinite memeber of the class.
Specific use
Often used to introduce a new specific entity into discourse: a young girl…, she was living…The girl.
Unspecific use
When NP doesn’t refer to any specific individual: a teacher from…
Classifying or generic use
Can serve to classify: my husband is a police officer or to refer generically to what is typical of any memeber of the class: a police is.
Indef. Meaning with zero article
Signals indefiniteness with uncountable nouns (we have brown sugar for the cakes) and pl countable nouns (we have got chairs for sitting at the party). These pharese normally express non-specific or generic ref but they have some special uses with sing countable nouns:
Meals as institutions
What…For dinner?
Places as institutions
They went to jail for…
Predic with unique ref
When a predic NP names a unique roe or job, either a zero article or the is used: Zapatero the president …
Means of transport and communication
Normally found after prep by: the journey is mostly by car.
Times of the days, days, months, and seasons
Winter is very…
Parallel structures
For mother and baby, customer and client, country to country.
Block language
Abbreviated language used in newspaper headlines, labels, list, notices, etc. Floods all over…
Vocatives:
forms of address, do you want any darling?. All these uses can occur with the definite article when a more specific meaning is wanted.
The definite article the
Used with countable and uncount nouns, marks the noun as referring to something known by speaker and addressee.
Anaphoric use
After unknow entities are introduced they can become known and named by the in later references: a young…The girl. (anaphora).
Indirect anaphoric use of the:
the earlier noun is not repeated, but an associate noun is used with the: the cat jumped on the wool, the claws grabbed it…
Use of the with synonyms:
sometimes, indirect anaphora involves the use of a different noun referring to the same thing or person: he washed his Lacoste in hot water. The jumper…
Cataphoric use:
opposite of anahpora. The definite reference is established by something following later in text especially some modifier of the noun: the summer [in England].
Situational use of the
An entity is known from the situtation, either immediate in which speech takes place or wider which includes knowledge of the national situation, the world, or even the universe: there’s someone knocking on the door. Sometimes hearer does not have istuational knowledge and the reference must be clarified: …It’s in the pocket. Which one? The front one.
Other uses
Idiomatic use: as part of a fixd phrase: at the end, by the way. Generic reference: He plays the piano. Generic reference: when a NP refers to the whoel class. All 3 articles can be used: indef: A doctor is…Zero: Doctors… Definitive: the doctor…