English Grammar: Nouns, Verbs, Adjectives, and Adverbs
The English Noun: Grammatical Category of Case
A noun is one of the main parts of speech, identifying people, things, places, and ideas. Nouns possess several grammatical categories, one of which is the grammatical category of case. This category expresses the grammatical functions and relationships between nominal words in a sentence. English, an analytical language, expresses these relationships using prepositions, relative pronouns, and word order.
Grammatical Functions of Nouns
According to Smirnitsky, nouns have seven grammatical functions:
- Subject Function: Expresses the subject of a sentence (Nominative case in syntactical languages). Example: Mary is out.
- Objective/Accusative Function: Shows the object of a sentence. Example: Mary read a book.
- Indirect Object Function (Dative): Example: Tom gave her flowers (or Tom gave flowers to her).
- Adnominal “Possessive”/Genitive Function: Example: This is Tom’s cat.
- Instrumental Function: Expressed using prepositions. Example: He killed his wife with a knife.
- Agentive Function: Also expressed using prepositions. Example: The cake was made by her.
- Comitative Function: Expressed using prepositions. Example: He came with her sister.
The Genitive Case
The Genitive Case is the only remnant of the Old English inflectional system. It has two members:
- Common Case: The unmarked member.
- Genitive Case: The marked member. The grammatical marker is “‘s” for singular nouns and irregular plural nouns. For regular plural nouns, the marker is an apostrophe (‘) after the plural “s”.
English uses both the inflectional genitive and the “of” (periphrastic) genitive.
Types of Genitive (Semantic Classification)
- Possessive Genitive: Expresses possession. Example: Tom’s new shoes are awful.
- Subjective Genitive: Shows a relationship between a subject and a verbal noun. Example: Tom’s arrival was unexpected.
- Objective Genitive: Expresses a relationship between a verb and its object. Example: Bill’s murder made the headlines.
- Qualitative/Descriptive Genitive: Qualifies the other element. Example: women’s church, a lion’s heart.
- Genitive of Measure: Refers to units of measure (distance, time, weight). Example: 5 hour’s walk.
- Genitive of Authorship: Example: They applauded the director’s speech.
Types of Genitive (Structural Classification)
- Simple Genitive: Example: Jane’s child, Tim’s house.
- Elliptic Genitive: Used in comparisons to omit the antecedent noun. Example: Jane’s child is older than Mary’s.
- Locative Genitive: Refers to places/institutions, omitting their names. Example: Let’s go to McDonald’s.
- Double Genitive: Uses both inflectional and “of-genitive” markers. Example: A friend of my sister’s is at home.
- Group Genitive:
- Joint Ownership: The last member of the group bears the marker. Example: Jim and Lilly’s daughter is smart.
- Appositives: Example: Mrs. Brown, our teacher’s, car is broken.
The English Verb: Grammatical Category of Aspect
A verb is a part of speech that identifies an action or a state. One of its grammatical categories is Aspect, which reflects how the verb action is experienced or regarded with respect to time.
Perfect and Progressive Aspects
Aspect is represented by two sets:
- Perfect Aspect: Indicates anterior time (a holistic view of the event, looking at the situation from outside). It shows that an activity is completed or will be completed at a definite moment. It’s expressed by the perfect verb phrase (auxiliary verb have + past participle).
- Progressive Aspect: Shows duration or limited duration. The activity is not necessarily completed. It’s expressed by the Finite Progressive Verb Phrase (auxiliary verb be + -ing form of the main verb). The alternative indicator is the Non-Finite Progressive Verb Phrase (to be doing).
Perfect Aspect and Tense/Voice
The Perfect Aspect combines with Tense:
- Present Perfect: Example: Tom has lived here for two years.
- Past Perfect: Example: Tom had lived here before he moved.
- Future Perfect: Example: Tom will have lived here by the end of the semester.
The Perfect Aspect also combines with Voice (auxiliary verb be + past participle): Example: The house has just been pulled down.
Perfect Non-finite Verb Phrases
Perfect Non-finite Verb Phrases (infinitive and -ing form) indicate precedence and completeness (active or passive voice). Example: People claimed to have been pulled down by itself.
Progressive Aspect and Voice
The Progressive Aspect correlates with Voice (Finite Verb Phrases only). Activities can have present, past, or future reference (active or passive voice), except those with future time reference. Example: The children are playing outside.
Perfect-Progressive Verb Phrase
Expresses the relation between Perfect and Progressive aspects (incompleteness and precedence). Both Non-finite and Finite verb phrases can be used, but only in the Active Voice. Example: Tom thinks that she has been working for 2 years.
The English Noun: Lexico-grammatical Category of Gender
The English noun possesses a lexico-grammatical category of gender, based on the extra-linguistic referent of sex. Morphological theory treats gender as a complex phenomenon, identifying a scale of ten gender classes based on gender-sensitive pronoun substitution.
Animate and Inanimate Nouns
Nouns are divided into two groups:
- Inanimate Nouns: Substituted by which and it. Example: table, silver, hate.
- Animate Nouns: Subdivided into personal and non-personal classes.
Personal Classes (Animate Nouns)
- Masculine Nouns: Substituted by who and he. Example: father, uncle, man.
- Feminine Nouns: Substituted by who and she. Example: mother, aunt, woman. Morphological markers: “-ess”, “-trix”, “-ette” (e.g., hostess, prosecutrix, usherette).
- Dual Nouns: Substituted by who, he, or she. Mainly professions. Example: teacher, doctor, student. Morphological markers: female/male student, man/woman writer. *Avoid using gendered suffixes for historically masculine roles; use gender-neutral terms (e.g., firefighter instead of fireman).*
- Collectives: Represent a group of individuals who preserve their individuality. Agree with a plural verb; substituted by who and they. Example: family, board, committee.
- Common Gender Nouns: Example: baby, kid, child. Replaced by who, he, or she.
Non-personal Classes (Animate Nouns)
All nouns in these subclasses can be substituted by *which* and *it*.
- Collectives: Members lose individuality or play the role of an institution. Agree with a verb in singular. Example: family, board, committee.
- Common Gender: Example: baby, child, kid (most commonly used in scientific papers).
- Masculine Forms for Animals: Example: dog, bull, gander.
- Feminine Forms for Animals: Example: bitch, cow, goose.
- Higher Organisms: Example: ship, lorry, airplane. Can be substituted by *she* if treated as living and expressing emotional attitude.
- Lower Animals: Insects, reptiles. Substituted by *which* and *it*.
The English Verb: Grammatical Category of Tense
The grammatical category of Tense relates to the extra-linguistic idea of time. In Modern English, Tense is a twofold opposition between Past and Present Tense. The marked member is the Past Tense. There is no Future Tense in English; instead, futurity is indicated by various grammatical patterns.
Present Simple Tense
Present Simple can refer to Present, Past, or Future.
- Present Time Reference:
- Unrestricted Present: Denotes activities/states stretching without limitation. Example: She lives in Beijing. Also expresses eternal truths. Example: Everest is the highest mountain peak.
- Habitual Present: Expresses repetitive activities. Example: She always goes out on Friday.
- Instantaneous Present: Denotes a single activity ending at the present moment (sport commentaries, demonstrations, performatives). Example: I declare the session closed.
- Past Time Reference:
- Newspaper headlines: Example: An Airplane Crashes Over the Alps.
- Dramatic Present: Indicates past activities in jokes/stories.
- Verbs of communication (see, tell, learn): Expresses a present effect of a past activity. Example: I learn that you have been to China.
- Book/film/theater reviews.
- Future Time Reference: Indicates fixed arrangements, timetables, schedules. Example: The train arrives at 3 o’clock.
Past Simple Tense
Past Simple also refers to Present, Past, and Future Time.
- Past Time Reference:
- Finished, completed activities in the past. Example: She left her husband 5 years ago.
- Habitual Past: Expresses repetitive activities in the past (often with adverbs of frequency or “used to” and “would + infinitive”). Example: He used to read a newspaper when he was at home.
- Present Time Reference:
- Hypothetical Past: Used in second conditional and wish sentences. Example: If I were you, I would apologize.
- Politeness Strategy: Used in requests to express politeness. Example: I wondered if you could help me.
- Future Time Reference: Found in science fiction novels. Example: In 2654 the Clones lived on Earth.
English Verb Phrases: Finite and Non-finite
A verb phrase is a grammatical unit consisting of a single verbal element or a combination of verbal elements with one semantic meaning. Verb phrases are classified as simple or complex.
Finite vs. Non-finite Verb Phrases
- Finite Verb Phrases: Function as a predicate in a sentence. They have the grammatical categories of Tense, Aspect, Voice, and Mood. Example: Kate plays a piano.
- Non-Finite Verb Phrases: Cannot function as a predicate on their own. They can be subjects, objects, attributes, etc. They possess only the grammatical categories of Aspect and Voice.
Simple and Complex Finite Verb Phrases
- Simple Finite Verb Phrases: Contain only one conjugated verb. Example: She loves cats.
- Complex Finite Verb Phrases:
- Modal: Modal auxiliary + base infinitive. Example: must come.
- Perfect: Auxiliary have + past participle. Example: have gone.
- Progressive: Auxiliary be + -ing form. Example: is learning.
- Passive: Auxiliary be + past participle. Example: was examined.
Non-finite Verb Phrases
Subdivided into three kinds:
- Infinitive:
- Base Infinitive: Occurs after modal verbs and in special questions after why. Example: may come.
- Split Infinitive: Another word appears between “to” and the base infinitive. Example: to completely destroy.
- To Infinitive: Has verbal and nominal properties. Example: like to sleep. Has forms for active/passive voice and simple/complex forms (e.g., to read, to be read, to have read, to have been read, to be reading, to have been reading). Used after verbs like seem, look, appear, and with the impersonal passive.
- -ing Form:
- Gerund: Has verbal and nominal properties. Example: Smoking is harmful.
- Present Participle: Example: After finishing her homework, she went to the cinema. Has active/passive voice (e.g., writing, being written, having written, having been written).
- Past Participle: Example: He would not come without being invited.
The English Verb: Futurity
While English lacks a Future Tense, Futurity is expressed through numerous patterns with different shades of meaning.
Ways to Express Futurity
- Will/Shall + Base Infinitive: The most common and neutral way. Indicates predictions and decisions made at the moment. Example: She will be a great mother.
- Will + Progressive Infinitive: Shows an activity in progress at a definite future point. Example: My friend will be traveling to China next month.
- Will + Perfect Infinitive: Indicates an activity completed before a definite future point. Example: Tom will have been promoted by May.
- Will + Perfect Progressive Infinitive: Denotes an activity marked by precedence and incompletion. Example: I will have been working here for two years by next Monday.
- Be Going To + Base Infinitive:
- With human subjects: Expresses intention. Example: Tom is going to travel to London.
- With non-human subjects: Indicates something makes us conclude the activity is near. Example: It’s going to rain.
- Denotes immediate future and implies warning. Example: This car is going to run over you.
- Present Simple Tense: Denotes fixed events (timetables, schedules). Example: The plane arrives at 3 o’clock.
- Present Progressive Tense: Expresses prearranged activities/appointments. Example: She is having an exam on Monday.
- Be About To: Synonym of “be going to” (intention). Example: I am about to sleep.
- Be To:
- Future obligation (parallel of must). Example: You are to finish the task on time.
- Prearranged activities (synonym to Present Progressive). Example: She is to marry in May.
- Modal Auxiliaries: Express futurity with their present form. Example: John will make a pizza tonight.
- Lexico-grammatical Constructions: (be on the verge of, be on the point of, be on the edge of). Example: He is on the edge of divorce.
The English Noun: Grammatical Category of Number
The grammatical category of number has two members: singular (oneness) and plural (more than one). Plural is the marked member. English nouns are divided into variables and invariables.
Variable Nouns
Have both singular and plural forms. They are divided into two paradigms:
- Native Paradigm: Words of Anglo-Saxon origin.
- Foreign Paradigm: Words of foreign origin.
Native Paradigm
- Regular marker: “-s” (e.g., cups, girls).
- Nouns ending in -s, -sh, -ch, -x, -z: Add “-es” (e.g., classes, boxes).
- Nouns ending in -y:
- Preceded by a vowel: Add “-s” (e.g., plays).
- Preceded by a consonant: Change “y” to “ie” and add “s” (e.g., countries).
- Suffix “-en”: (e.g., oxen, children).
- Mutation of root vowel: (e.g., tooth – teeth).
- Nouns ending in -f or -fe:
- Change “f” to “v” and add “es”: (e.g., shelf – shelves).
- Some follow the above pattern or add only “s”: (e.g., scarf – scarfs/scarves).
- Add only “s”: (e.g., safe – safes).
- Zero plural: Singular and plural forms are identical (e.g., fruit, sheep).
- Nouns ending in -o:
- Preceded by a vowel: add -s (studios)
- Preceded by a consonant: add -s (photos) or -es (heroes)
- Some can take both: (volcanos, volcanoes)
Foreign Paradigm
- Only foreign plural: (e.g., crisis – crises).
- Foreign plural and regular marker “s”: (e.g., formula – formulae/formulas).
- Only regular marker “s”: (e.g., museums).
Compound Nouns
- First element takes the plural: (e.g., chiefs-of-staff).
- Second element takes the plural: (e.g., timetables).
- Each element takes the plural: (e.g., men hunters).
Invariable Nouns
- Singular Invariables: Occur only in singular; agree with singular verbs. Example: linguistics, news, John, wood, friendship, the ugly.
- Plural Invariables: Occur only in plural; agree with plural verbs. Example: the Alps, slacks, statistics, the rich.
The English Adverb: Characteristics
The adverb modifies verbs, noun phrases, adjectives, sentences, or other adverbs. It doesn’t distinguish grammatical categories; it’s defined by morphological, semantic, and syntactic characteristics.
Morphological Characteristics
- Simple: Mono-morphemic/single words. Example: here, well, fast.
- Derivational: Formed by suffixes (-ly, -ward(s), -wise) and the prefix a-. Example: absolutely, backwards, clockwise, ahead.
- Compound: Combination of two stems. Example: somewhere.
- Fixed Adverbial Phrases: Expressions with an adverb and a preposition, or set phraseological units. Example: out of, in between, one by one.
- Flat Adverbs: Two forms: identical to the adjective, and ending in -ly (with different meanings). Example: hard/hardly. Some (far, fast, past) are identical to adjectives in form and meaning.
Degrees of Comparison
- Monosyllabic adverbs: Use suffixes -er and -est.
- Polysyllabic adverbs: Use *more* and *most* (positive) or *less* and *the least* (negative).
- Comparative phrases: so fast than, as quickly as possible.
Semantic Characteristics
- Adverbs of Circumstance: Modify circumstances.
- Place: Example: here, inside.
- Manner: Example: happily, slowly.
- Degree: Example: almost, completely.
- Time: Example: now, tomorrow.
- Frequency: Example: always, often.
- Adverbs of Stance: Express the speaker’s attitude.
- Epistemic Adverbs: Level of certainty/doubt. Example: surely, probably.
- Adverbs of Attitude: Feelings of the person. Example: unfortunately, curiously.
- Adverbs of Style: Manner of speaking. Example: honestly, personally.
- Linking Adverbs: Connect clauses in complex/compound sentences.
- Enumeration/Addition: first, moreover.
- Apposition: namely.
- Result: therefore, thus.
- Contrast: however.
- Transition: incidentally.
Syntactic Characteristics
- Modifiers of adjectives/adverbs/other parts of speech: Example: really fast.
- Adverbial Modifiers: Specify circumstances (time, place, manner). Example: I live abroad.
- Coordinating Adverbs: Connect independent clauses (link words). Example: She worked hard, therefore she is tired.
- Subordinating Adverbs: Introduce dependent clauses. Example: I had hardly been there, when she came.
The English Adjective: Characteristics
An adjective describes nouns. It is unchangeable, lacking grammatical categories like Gender and Number. It has morphological, semantic, and syntactic characteristics.
Morphological Characteristics
- Structure
- Formation of degrees of comparison
Structure
- Simple/Mono-morphemic: Example: sad, long.
- Derivational: Formed by affixes (-ible, -able, -ous, -ful, -ent, -al). Example: terrible, fashionable.
- Compound: Combination of two stems. Example: absent-minded.
- Participials: Formed by present/past participle. Example: amazing, disappointed.
Degrees of Comparison
- Monosyllabic adjectives: Suffixes -er/-est. Example: long – longer – the longest.
- Polysyllabic words: *More/most* (superiority), *less/least* (inferiority).
- Equality: *as…as*.
- Inequality: *not as…as*.
- Changes in root morphemes: Example: good – better – the best.
- Disyllabic words ending in “y”: “y” changes to “i”. Example: happy – happier – the happiest.
- Some adjectives ending in “ly”: Form comparisons in both ways. Example: lovely – lovelier/more lovely – the loveliest/the most lovely.
Semantic Characteristics
- Qualitative/Descriptive Adjectives: Modifying function; describe qualities/properties. Form comparison; intensified by *very*, *rather*, *quite*. Subdivided into those denoting size/quantity/extent, time/chronology/age/frequency, evolution/emotions/judgments, and color.
- Classifying Adjectives: Describe nouns by identifying the class. Cannot form degrees of comparison or be intensified. Fall into groups: Rational, Affiliative, and Topical adjectives.
- Rational: final, perfect
- Affiliative: Bulgarian, Muslim
- Topical: social, golden
Some adjectives (emotional, moral, extreme, etc.) can be either qualitative or classifying, depending on meaning.
Syntactic Characteristics
- Attributes: Modifiers in a noun phrase (pre-position or post-position).
- Predicatives: After link verbs (be, seem, grow, etc.); serve as subject/object complement.
Central adjectives can be both attributes and predicatives. Peripheral adjectives occur only as attributes or predicatives.