English Grammar: Tenses, Aspects, Moods, Infinitives, and -ing Forms
GR 19: Time, Tense, Aspect & Mood
1. Introduction
2. Time & Tense
Although temporal dimensions answer the question “when?” or “how long?”, real time and verbal tense show differences and few similarities. Firstly, they are similar in that they are expressed by verb tenses, belonging to lexical verbs (present and past) and modal operators (shall, will) for the future. Secondly, we must distinguish between ‘tense’ and ‘time’. ‘Real time’ is a universal abstraction with three divisions: past, present, and future. ‘Verbal tense’ refers to corresponding tenses regarding our concept of time. Verbs may refer to an event (single occurrence) or a state (continues over a period). This distinction gives rise to three basic kinds of verb meaning:
- State (Napoleon was Corsican)
- Single event (Columbus discovered America)
- Habit (Paganini played the violin brilliantly)
2.1 Present Time
Several ways to refer to the present moment:
- Simple Present Tense: present state (I am angry), general truths (water boils at 100°C), present events (I declare you husband and wife), present habits (the bus passes at 7)
- Present Progressive: temporary present (he is sleeping), limited duration (they are living in NY), single event (he is drinking coffee), temporary habit (I’m taking German lessons), continuousness (my sisters are always speaking), repeated temporary happenings (he is listening to music whenever I see him)
- Simple Past Tense (for tact): I wondered if I could ask you something
2.2 Past Time
- Simple Past Tense: refers to a definite past time, identifiable by adverbs (he was here yesterday), context, or proper nouns (Maradona). A gap is implied between the referred time and the present (Rose was a teacher all her life).
- Present Perfect: indicates states, habits, or events continuing to the present (this bar has been closed for 10 years, have you ever…?, he has been to the gym every day, the plane has landed).
- Past Perfect: indicates ‘past in the past’ (she had already left when I came home).
- State or Habit in the Past: ‘used to’ (My mum used to watch comedies). ‘would’ expresses past habit, with a sense of characteristic behavior (he would pick up his girlfriend). ‘would’ is typical of narrative style, ‘used to’ of spoken English.
- Simple Present with Past Meaning: historic present (used in narratives), verbs of communication (I hear you don’t work here anymore).
- Past Continuous Tense: action in progress, interrupted action (I was… when…), simultaneous past actions (I was studying when he was reading), irritation (he is always!), polite questions (I was wondering if…).
- Time Adverbials for Past Time: a week ago, since I met you, this week, never.
2.3 Future Time
- will/shall: tomorrow it will rain
- be going to: future as fulfillment of the present (I am going to study to become a doctor)
- Present Progressive: future events from a present plan (we’re meeting John tonight)
- Simple Present Tense: If he gets a 10, he will be able to become a doctor
- will/shall + progressive aspect: at this time tomorrow she’ll be leaving
- Other future expressions: be to (he was to give a speech) & be about to
3. Aspect
Aspect refers to how a situation is experienced: completed or in progress. Two aspects: perfect and progressive.
3.1 The Perfect Aspect & ‘have’
Formed with have/has/had + past participle (she had written).
3.2 The Progressive Aspect & ‘be’
Indicates action in progress with limited duration (he’s signing now).
3.3 The Perfect Progressive Aspect
Combines perfect and progressive aspects (he has been working), indicating a temporary situation leading up to the present.
4. Mood
Mood indicates the speaker’s attitude: facts, wishes, or commands. Three main moods: indicative, subjunctive, and imperative. Indicative: factual verbs (admit, answer). Subjunctive: volition or wish (God save the King). Imperative: commands (Call Tom!).
5. Bibliography
- Greenbaum, S. (2000). The Oxford Reference Grammar. Oxford: OUP.
- Jespersen, O. (1973). Modern English Grammar on Historical Principles. London: Allen & Unwin.
- Quirk, R. et al. (1985). A Comprehensive Grammar of the English Language. London: Longman.
- Carter, R. & McCarthy, M. (2006). Cambridge Grammar of English. Cambridge: CUP.
GR 20: The Verb
1. Introduction
2. The Verb: Definition and Classes
Morphologically, verbs have inflectional endings (-ed, -s, -ing). Syntactically, they act as the predicate. Verbs are divided into:
- Regular: -ed in past and past participle
- Irregular: not inflected with -ed
- Defective: lack some parts (e.g., must)
According to function:
- Lexical: main part of the verb phrase (sleep)
- Auxiliary: no independent existence (must)
3. Auxiliary Verbs
Express grammatical functions. Divided into primary and modal.
3.1 Primary Auxiliary Verbs
do, have, be. ‘do’ co-occurs with lexical verbs (I don’t know). ‘have’ and ‘be’ can co-occur with modals (you will be rewarded) and each other (she has been offered a job).
3.1.1 The Auxiliary ‘do’
- Questions and negations (Do you know him?)
- Emphasis (Do sit down)
- Question tags (don’t you?)
- Substitution (I had to, but I forgot to do so)
- Agreement (so do I)
3.1.2 The Auxiliary ‘have’
- Present perfect (I have lived)
- Repeated recent actions (they have been doing sports)
- Past actions with present effects (they have just left)
- Past perfect (she had left)
- Future perfect (I will have finished)
- Perfect infinitive (she seems to have been studying)
- Obligation (have to)
- Causative (I had my hair cut)
3.1.3 The Auxiliary ‘be’
- Present progressive (what are you doing?)
- Past progressive (the sun was shining)
- Present perfect progressive (I have been cooking)
- Future progressive (will you be using this pen?)
- Passive voice
- Future arrangements (he was to become a lawyer)
3.2 Modal Auxiliary Verbs
- Possible events (you could be right)
- No -s for 3rd person singular
- No ‘do’ for questions (can you drive?)
- Followed by bare infinitive (except ‘ought to’)
- No infinitives (I’ll be able to swim)
- No past forms (although ‘could’ and ‘would’ have past meanings)
can/could: ability, possibility, permission.
may/might: permission, possibility.
shall: offers, suggestions.
should: duty, probability.
will: future predictions, promises, refusals.
would: past of ‘will’, future in the past, conditional auxiliary, polite requests.
must: subjective obligation, deduction.
ought to: strong advice.
Other constructions: used to (past habit), need (lack of obligation).
4. Bibliography
- Quirk, R. et al. (1985). A Comprehensive Grammar of the English Language. London: Longman.
- Huddleston, R. (1995). Introduction to the Grammar of English. CUP.
- Swan, M. (1986). Practical English Usage. OUP.
GR 21: The Infinitive and the -ing Form
1. Introduction
2. The Infinitive
2.1 The Infinitive with ‘to’
Simple Infinitive: present (to write), present continuous (to be writing), present passive (to be written), present continuous passive (to be being written).
Complex Infinitive: perfect (to have written), perfect continuous (to have been writing), perfect passive (to have been written), perfect continuous passive (to have been being written).
Uses:
- Noun: subject (To stop smoking is your goal), object (he was to drink a beer), complement (his main goal is to pass)
- Modifier: after nouns, pronouns, adjectives (something to eat)
- Purpose or result (he drove fast to show off)
- Join clauses (he ran to arrive on time)
- Replace relative clauses (he’s always the first to come)
- After certain verbs (be, become, seem)
- Constructions (too dark to see)
- Idiomatic expressions (to be honest)
2.2 The Infinitive without ‘to’
- Certain sentences: subject attributive (what you’ve done is spoil everything), interrogative (help them? never), why questions (why wait?)
- After certain verbs: modal auxiliaries, verbs of perception (I saw him enter), modal idioms (had better), marginal modal auxiliaries
2.3 The Infinitive: Main Functions
2.3.1 The Infinitive as Subject
At the beginning (To know her is to love her) or end of a sentence. Usually ‘it + be + adj + infinitive’ (it would be amazing to visit).
2.3.2 The Infinitive as Direct Object
After certain verbs (agree, ask, forget). Structure ‘verb + how/what/when/where/why + full infinitive’. Also ‘whether + full infinitive’.
2.3.3 The Infinitive as a Verb Complement
- After auxiliary verbs (he need leave)
- After verbs expressing likes and dislikes
- After verbs of knowing and thinking (I consider him to be)
- After certain phrases (be able to, do one’s best): we can’t afford to live in Paris
2.3.4 The Infinitive after Verb + Object
Full or bare infinitive after verbs of knowing and thinking, especially in passive voice (he is invited to come). Also after verbs expressing volition (I wanted him to tell me), verbs of command (I told him to stay), and verbs of perception (he was seen to enter).
2.3.5 The Split Infinitive
Emphatic elements placed after ‘to’ (she’s asking you to simply tell the truth).
2.3.6 The Infinitive as an Adverbial Clause
Introductory sentences (to be fair).
3. The -ing Form
Gerund (verbal noun) vs. Present Participle (verbal adjective).
3.1 Main Uses
3.1.1 As an Adjective
Attributive (a burning candle) and predicative positions.
3.1.2 As a Verb
Takes a direct object (he likes drinking beer), modified by adverbs, adverbial subordinate clauses.
3.1.3 As a Noun
Plural forms (his talkings), articles (your travelling), genitive (my mum’s questioning).
3.2 Main Functions
3.2.1 As Subject & as Predicate
Subject after verbs of knowing and thinking (he thought that parking was…). Prohibitions (no smoking). Predicate (seeing is believing).
3.2.2 As a Verb Complement
I hate cooking.
3.2.3 After Prepositions
Except ‘to’ (but also look forward to).
3.2.4 As Relative Clauses
The man coming… is…
3.2.5 As Adverbial Clauses
Being the best candidate, he won.
3.2.6 As Idiomatic Expressions
There’s no point in, cannot stand, what about…?
4. Bibliography
- Quirk, R. et al. (1985). A Comprehensive Grammar of the English Language. London: Longman.
- Greenbaum, S. (2000). The Oxford Reference Grammar. Oxford: OUP.
- Carter, R. & McCarthy, M. (2006). Cambridge Grammar of English. Cambridge: CUP.
- Jespersen, O. (1973). Modern English Grammar on Historical Principles. London: Allen & Unwin.