English Phonological System: Sounds & Pronunciation
Unit 9: The English Phonological System
Unit 9: Description of the English Phonological System. Pronunciation Models and Learning Techniques. Perception, Discrimination, and Emission of Sounds, Intonation, Rhythm, and Stress. Phonetic Correction.
0. Introduction
Sound is the most universal and natural medium for the transmission of language. We possess the ability to produce speech by using our body’s speech mechanism. The speech chain can be summarized in three stages: production, transmission, and perception of sound. Each of these stages corresponds to three main dimensions of the study of sounds: articulatory phonetics, acoustic phonetics, and auditory phonetics. This unit will focus on the production stage and the perception stage. Both are of great importance in foreign language teaching, since a person cannot become competent in a language if they are unable to pronounce or recognize the sounds of that language properly.
1. Phonetics and Phonology
Phonetics is the study of how speech sounds are made, transmitted, and received. It studies the physical dimension of speech. Phonology is concerned with sound as a system of meaning. It studies stress, rhythm, and intonation.
1.1. Phonemes
Phonemes are the smallest contrastive linguistic units which may bring about a change of meaning. It is possible to establish the phonemes of a language by means of minimal pairs (e.g., “chin,” “win”). These are pairs of words which differ in respect of only one sound segment. Phonemes are transcribed using phonetic symbols between slant lines (//).
1.2. Allophones
An allophone is the actual pronunciation of a phoneme. Allophones change the quality of sounds. They are enclosed between brackets ([]).
2. Description of the English Phonological System
The main aim of phonetics is the description and classification of speech sounds. We have seen that a speech sound has three stages: production, transmission, and reception. The articulatory phonetic description of any sound makes reference to six basic factors: airstream, vocal folds, soft palate, place of articulation, manner of articulation, and lips.
2.1. Segmental Features
The segments of spoken language are vowels and consonants, which combine to produce syllables, words, and sentences.
A. Vowels: Vowels are described with reference to four criteria: the part of the tongue that is raised, the height of the tongue that rises in the direction of the palate, the lip position, and the soft palate position. The most satisfactory system for classifying vowels was devised by the British phonetician Daniel Jones. There are twelve vowels: seven short (ɪ, e, æ, ɒ, ʊ, ʌ, ə) and five long (iː, uː, aː, ɔː, ɜː). Vowels are divided into pure vowels, which are a single sound, and glides or diphthongs, which are formed when there is a movement from one vowel position to another. There are eight diphthongs: three long glides to /ɪ/: /eɪ, aɪ, ɔɪ/; two glides to /ʊ/: /əʊ, aʊ/; and three long glides to /ə/: /ɪə, eə, ʊə/.
B. Semi-vowels: There are two consonants which are vowel-like: /j/ as in “yes” and /w/ as in “west”. They are pronounced like a vowel, but we use them in a consonant way, since they only occur before vowel phonemes. According to the place of articulation, /w/ is bilabial and /j/ is palatal.
C. Consonants: Consonant sounds are produced by obstructing the airstream from the lungs. Consonants are described with reference to four basic criteria:
- The state of vibration of the vocal folds. When they vibrate, the sounds are voiced /b, d, ɡ, dʒ, v, ð, z, ʒ/. When there is no vibration, the sounds are voiceless /p, t, k, tʃ, f, θ, s, ʃ/.
- The position of the soft palate. When it is lowered, the sound is nasal /m/, /n/, /ŋ/; when it is raised, the sound is oral.
- The place of articulation: bilabial /p, b, m/, labio-dental /f, v/, dental /θ, ð/, alveolar /t, d, l, n, s, z/, post-alveolar /r/, palato-alveolar /ʃ, ʒ, dʒ, tʃ/, velar /k, ɡ, ŋ/, glottal /h/, palatal /j/.
- Manner of articulation: Partial closure /l/. Narrowing fricative /f, v, θ, ð, s, z, ʃ, ʒ, h/. Approximant /r, w, j/. Total closure plosive /p, t, k, b, d, ɡ/, affricate /tʃ, dʒ/, nasal /m, n, ŋ/.
2.2. Suprasegmental Features
The suprasegmental function operates above the level of individual segments and influences the meaning of chunks of speech.
A. Stress: Stress is the degree of prominence associated with a word or syllable.
- A.1. Word stress: primary stress /ˈtraːns,pɔːt/, secondary stress /ˌɪnˈtrepɪd/, unstressed /ˈmɪnɪt/.
- A.2. Sentence stress: Content words such as nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs, and demonstratives are usually stressed. Form words, which are not essential for the communication of a message, are unstressed.
- A.3. Classification of languages: Non-dynamic stress languages, which have a fixed place for the stress in words. Dynamic stress languages, in which there is not a fixed place for stress.
B. Rhythm: Rhythm involves some noticeable event happening at regular intervals of time. English has a stressed-timed rhythm. The speaker can vary the rhythm to convey other meanings.
C. Intonation: Speech has a melody called intonation, the significant changes in the musical pitch of the voice. There are four tone movements: fall, rise, fall-rise, rise-fall. Intonation has two basic functions: grammatical function (it indicates grammatical meaning as stating, questioning, or exclamation) and emotional function. A falling tone indicates surprise, commands (be quiet), or warning. A rising tone is used in friendly greetings (good morning) and polite enquiring. A falling-rising tone may indicate uncertainty (really). A rising-falling tone indicates an impatient attitude (come on).
3. Pronunciation Models and Learning Techniques: Perception, Discrimination, and Emission of Sounds, Intonation, Rhythm, and Stress
Pronunciation teaching will form an important and integral part of our foreign language class. Learners need motivation and time to practice pronunciation. We should encourage children with songs or rhymes. Also, listening to recordings of their own voices gives an excellent opportunity for self-evaluation. Some of the aspects for pronunciation teaching are the difference between long and short vowels, the word accent, and the pronunciation of final “s” sounds. When teaching pronunciation, we should try to create a communicative context and take a learner-centered approach. Learners should be able to develop their own skills in critical listening.
3.1. Models
English has a profusion of different spoken forms and accents. There are two main candidates as basic models: British Received Pronunciation and American English. As students gain confidence in their productive competence, they can gradually be exposed to other important regional types, such as American English. So, the teacher’s own pronunciation should reach the highest level possible.
3.2. Learning Techniques
The teacher should present and practice pronunciation as they introduce new aspects of language. Learning pronunciation has two phases: learning to discriminate English sounds, stress, and intonation; and learning to produce those sounds, stress, and intonation. Therefore, listening is the first step in the teaching-learning process of pronunciation. A basic approach to teaching pronunciation follows an order from the smallest unit of speech (phonemes) to the word (stress) and finally to connected speech, incorporating features such as rhythm and intonation.
A. Sounds: In the listening stage, the teacher must devise ear-training activities such as discrimination drills, discrimination games (odd one out, phonetic bingo), and dictations. In the production stage, the teacher should devise exercises for the production of sounds, such as repetition drills, meaningful drills, songs, chants, and tongue twisters situated in context. Finally, in the free production stage, children should practice sounds in dialogues.
B. Stress: In the listening stage, the students have to point out the stressed syllable in a word or phrase. The teacher should provide the students with recognition activities, clapping their hands when hearing the stressed syllable, marking the stress on words, and classifying words. In the production stage, the teacher first has to read out the whole sentence, then they read out only the stressed syllable, next the students repeat the whole sentence, and finally the pupils practice the words in context.
C. Rhythm: In the listening stage, the teacher should ask the children to clap to the strong beats, but in the production stage, songs and rhymes are carried out.
D. Intonation: In the listening stage, it is important to recognize the rising or falling pattern, drawing arrows or moving their arms to indicate the direction of the intonation. In the production stage, children will imitate the intonation pattern using gestures or arrows as well. The teacher can help students’ intonation with drawings (showing moods) or providing them with integrated exercises, role-plays, or dialogues.
4. Phonetic Correction
4.1. Problems for Spanish Speakers
Difficulty distinguishing between long and short vowels, confusion between the voiced and voiceless realization of sounds. Difficulty in pronouncing three- and four-syllable words with the stress on their first syllables. Difficulty using weak forms in the rhythm. Spanish has a narrower pitch range than English.
4.2. Correction Techniques
Instant remedial: The teacher will draw attention to the problematic sound and pronounce it in isolation, then they will associate it with a familiar one, and then they will explain how the sound/pattern is formed.
Planned remedial: The teacher should make a note of the problem and make a short plan with discrimination drills and practice activities. Through exposure to English in the form of classroom language, instructions, games, stories, dialogues, rhymes, chants, and songs, children develop familiarity with the sounds, rhythm, and intonation patterns of English and imitate these features in a natural way.
5. Conclusion
Teaching to pronounce and recognize sounds should form part of the didactic procedures. We should always bear in mind that the objective of the current educational law for this subject is the development of communicative competence in everyday situations.