Enlightenment and Romanticism: From Reason to Revolution
Enlightenment and Romanticism
Introduction
The word “romantic” now has connotations associated with feelings and ideals. This is logical, as Romanticism championed both unattainable ideals and feelings. However, that is only a fraction of Romanticism’s legacy. The Romantic movement was a much deeper historical process that still affects us today. It’s important to remember that nineteenth-century writers sometimes appeared as liberal rebels who wanted to change the world, but other times they wrote texts defending traditional values. To understand these contradictions, it’s best to examine Romanticism’s origins.
The Emergence of a Nation
In the late eighteenth century, the thirteen North American colonies, tired of England’s abuses, started a war that led to their independence. During the war, representatives of these colonies met on July 4, 1776, to ratify their Declaration of Independence. The United States of America was born, and with it, Romanticism. The idea that a people could rise against an unjust government was constant during the Romantic period. Freedom of expression and individual participation in politics were crucial for the Romantics. The Declaration of Independence states: “We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are created equal, that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable Rights, that among these are Life, Liberty and the pursuit of Happiness…Whenever any Form of Government becomes destructive of these ends, it is the Right of the People to alter or to abolish it…” This text also highlights words representative of the Enlightenment and its mentality: “…that all men are created equal, that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable Rights, that among these are Life, Liberty and the pursuit of Happiness…Whenever any Form of Government becomes destructive of these ends, it is the Right of the People to alter or to abolish it…”
The Eighteenth Century and the End of the Old Regime
Ideas similar to those in the U.S. Declaration of Independence led to the French Revolution, a process of radical political and social change that destroyed the ancien régime. Throughout the eighteenth century, the bourgeoisie had progressed economically, especially in northern Europe, but remained under the political tyranny of the absolutist monarchy. This situation needed to change for social progress to continue. The changes that ended the old regime were driven by the intellectual and political power known as the Enlightenment. Contrary to the established views of the Church, the Enlightenment promoted knowledge derived from reason, scientific experimentation, and common sense. Both American Independence and the French Revolution help us understand life in the late eighteenth century. These years marked the end of the Church and nobility’s long rule in Europe and the beginning of a new societal model. In this new society, practical utility, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness became important.
The Enlightenment: The Light of Reason
The eighteenth century is also known as the Enlightenment, referring to the light of reason projected against the perceived darkness promoted by the Church regarding knowledge. The Church rejected scientific advances largely because it felt worldly knowledge was irrelevant, as earthly life was merely a step towards eternal life. However, the Enlightenment’s origins lie within the Church itself, following the sixteenth-century reforms. After the Council of Trent, Europe was divided into Catholics and Protestants. Protestant thought emphasized reason, individual initiative, and the pursuit of happiness. Under Protestantism, individual happiness also positively impacted the surrounding community. If God had given humans reason, they should use it to seek a better and more comfortable life. Thus, Protestant countries, especially England, saw technical improvements in crops, new ways of working, and scientific advances, accompanied by the modernization of political institutions.
The Failure of the Enlightenment
The Romantics rebelled because they were disappointed with the achievements of their Enlightenment-era parents and grandparents. Enlightened politicians, philosophers, and scientists couldn’t overthrow absolutist governments or reform society without the people’s help. Harnessing popular discontent was necessary to transform society, and even the enlightened recognized that reason couldn’t achieve everything, especially against those in power. Ultimately, the Enlightenment’s results didn’t satisfy everyone; only a few benefited. The monarchy’s motto, “Everything for the people, but without the people,” was replaced by the enlightened bourgeoisie’s, “Everything for ourselves, but with the people.”
Lights and Shadows of the Enlightenment
The Enlightenment is full of contradictions. While aiming to improve society, enlightened actions weren’t always consistent with good intentions. Thomas Jefferson, who wrote the Declaration of Independence proclaiming human equality, owned slaves. The 1789 Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen advocated gender equality but declared private property as inalienable and sacred. Legal privileges were eliminated, but differences between rich and poor remained. It defended man as a citizen but ignored women’s rights.
The Romantic: An Insatiable Personality
The Romantics championed individual personality, the unique mind within each individual. Their idealistic spirit wasn’t satisfied with material progress and comfort. Their desire for freedom and their wishes were boundless, exalted, and insatiable. The happiness of a comfortable life felt insufficient and vulgar. The Romantic wanted more; they felt, and still feel, and want.
Subjectivity: The Perspective of Experience
Another important aspect of Romantic thought is its emphasis on subjectivity. Reason and science view reality as having only one interpretation. Romanticism, however, emphasized individual perspectives, the unique vision of each human being, and the value of each particular experience. Romantics were interested in exotic countries, sunsets, altered perceptions, dreams, ruins, and tombs—environments where things are seen in a different light. Perceiving reality from a different perspective allowed Romantics to project their imaginations onto it. The non-romantic looks at the landscape; the Romantic looks at themselves in the landscape. Men and women who embraced Romanticism didn’t accept official truths or dogmas. They learned everything through their own experience.
Traditionalist Romanticism
As mentioned, there were liberal Romantics and conservative Romantics. Traditionalist Romantics looked nostalgically at what the Enlightenment had viewed with horror: the Middle Ages. They offered an idealized image of what conservative Romantics desired: a world dominated by religion, national sentiment, and patriotism. Faith, not reason, appealed to feelings. Religious feeling was mysterious to the Romantics, and mystery truly touched the soul. Conversion to Catholicism was common among famous Romantic figures who found refuge in religion for their worries and anxieties. Besides religion, parental affection, love for their country, and their customs were also important.
Romantic Literature: Characteristics
- The Romantic Genius: The artist doesn’t have to conform to standards because they possess an innate knowledge of beauty derived from their imagination.
- Subjectivity: Romantic writers didn’t intend to represent reality as it is, but as they experienced it.
- Emotions: Great importance is placed on feelings and emotions. Characters confront the world because their desires are never reciprocated, often leading to disappointment.
- Rebellious Characters: Features numerous rebel characters (bandits, beggars, fugitives, pirates). Their marginal status interested Romantics because it allowed for a different worldview.
- Exotic Environments: Preference for exotic, unknown, or sepulchral environments. Space in Romanticism favors a different perspective. A frontier always awakens the imagination.
- Ineffable Truth: Predilection for moments when reality isn’t ordinary and inspires the artist’s ineffable truth: night, storms, carnivals.
Simple Sentences: Tasks
A simple sentence consists of a single predicate (a verb in person). To understand this concept, one must first distinguish between subject and predicate.
Subject and Predicate
The subject is the element about which information is given; it’s a noun phrase (a noun plus its complements). The predicate is the information given about the subject, and this function is taken by a verb phrase (a verb plus its complements). Example: The neighbor’s dog barks desperately every night. (NP = Subject, VP = Predicate)
Mechanisms for Identifying the Subject and Predicate
To identify these parts, first locate the verb. The verb is part of the predicate, which is all the information given about the subject. This helps form a hypothesis about where each part begins and ends. Example: The justice minister has resigned. (Information given: justice minister, Information: has resigned) To confirm, apply the consistency test: the subject must agree in person (first, second, third) and number (singular or plural) with the verb. Changing the verb to plural without changing the subject results in an incorrect sentence: The justice minister have resigned. To correct it, change justice minister to justice ministers, demonstrating that this entire part is the subject.
Elliptical Subjects and Impersonal Sentences
Sometimes the subject is omitted because it’s understood from context, the other speaker knows it, or it appeared in a previous sentence. This is an elliptical subject. Example: Sentence 1: James plays the guitar beautifully. Sentence 2: (He) has learned very quickly. However, in impersonal sentences, the subject isn’t implied but absent altogether. Example: It’s cold. It’s nonsensical to say The cold is cold. Impersonal sentences include: a) weather verbs (In London it rains incessantly), b) verbs have and be (There is too much light in this office), c) impersonal se (You eat well in this restaurant).
Complements of the Verb Phrase
Complementing Linking Verbs: The Attribute
It appears only after linking verbs (be, is, am, are, was, were, seems, appears). Example: Her sister’s boyfriend is a firefighter. The substitution test with “as” confirms it: Her sister’s boyfriend is as a firefighter.
Predicative Complements to Verbs: The Direct Object (CD)
It’s the element directly affected by the verb’s action. Examples: The waiter poured the menu to the guests., The dog bit the bone in the morning.
Lola’s Method to Find the CD
To identify the CD, use “Lola’s method”: replace the suspected phrase with the pronouns lo, la, los, las. Examples: The dog bit the bone. becomes The dog bit it., The waiter served the menu. becomes The waiter served it.
One Problem with Lola’s Method: Leísmo
A problem arises with sentences like: The dog bit John., which becomes The dog bit him. Some speakers use le for male human direct objects.
The Solution: Lola for Leísmo
To avoid this, change the suspected phrase’s gender to female: The dog bit Marcela., which becomes The dog bit her.
The Indirect Object: Semantic Definition
The indirect object (CI) refers to the person or thing benefiting from or adversely affected by the verb’s action. However, this definition isn’t always reliable. Examples: Juan kissed Marie passionately., John kissed Marie passionately. “Marie” is the person affected in both, but has different functions.
Indirect Complement Pronominalization
In Juan kissed Marie passionately, “Marie” is the direct object, pronominalized as her: John kissed her passionately. In John kissed Marie passionately, the pronoun is le: John kissed her passionately. The pronoun le is always indirect, regardless of gender.
The Indirect Object is Often Duplicated
Replacing “Marie” with a pronoun often leaves the sentence unchanged: John kissed Marie passionately. becomes John kissed her passionately. This is because the indirect object is often duplicated. Changing “to kiss” to “to give a kiss” automatically adds the pronoun: John gave Marie a kiss. becomes John gave her a kiss.
CD and CI in Passive Voice Transformation
Another way to differentiate CI and CD is through passive voice: Juan kissed Marie passionately. becomes Marie was kissed passionately by Juan. The active sentence’s direct object becomes the passive sentence’s patient subject. The indirect object doesn’t change position or lose its preposition: John kissed Marie passionately. becomes A kiss was given by John to Marie passionately.
Verbal Complement System (CRV)
Some verbs require a preposition and extra information introduced by it. Example: The company depends. is incomplete. The structure is: (something/someone) depends on (something/someone). This required complement is the CRV: The company depends on investors. Many verbs are like this: talk about, rely on, aspire to. The preposition is essential: *He talked politics every day. is incorrect. The CRV is a prepositional phrase with the verb’s required preposition and information. Examples: He talked about international politics., He hoped for their generosity., I ran for third.
The Predicative Complement (CPred.)
The predicative complement is unique because it’s part of the predicate but also relates to the subject. Example: The boy arrived exhausted. “Exhausted” complements both “arrived” and “the boy,” describing his condition upon arrival. Ainoa smiled nervously. “Nervously” complements “smiled” and “Ainoa,” describing her state while smiling. It’s in the predicate, affects the verb, and relates to the subject in meaning (providing information) and form (agreeing in gender and number). Example: The boy arrived exhausted., The girl arrived exhausted., The boys arrived exhausted., The girls arrived exhausted.
Adverbial (CC)
The CC describes the circumstances of the verb’s action. Types include: time, place, manner, company, instrument. Examples: Javier will leave tomorrow., Sandra will travel to Japan., Marta has come very fast., Marina will sing with her sister., Sonia made the cake with the kitchen robot. The CC is dispensable; the sentence remains correct without it: Javier is going., Sandra travels., etc. Example conversation: A: Victor is hurt. B: When? Where? What? How? With whom? A: Victor is hurt this morning, in the park, with an iron, quickly, with his brother.