Enlightenment Philosophers: Ideas, Revolutions, and Impact
The Enlightenment: Core Beliefs
The enlightened believed that humanity, driven by intelligence, could achieve knowledge, which they saw as the basis of happiness, the ultimate goal of human life. They defended tolerance as the foundation of human relations and criticized religious intolerance.
Key Philosophers of the Enlightenment
Enlightenment philosophers defended the principles of freedom and equality for all human beings. They argued that all people are born free and equal. They also advocated for social mobility based on merit, worth, and intelligence.
Economic Thought
In opposition to mercantilism, which advocated for the accumulation of precious metals, the Physiocrats maintained that agriculture was the basis of a nation’s wealth. They defended private property and freedom of commerce and industry.
Political Thought
- Montesquieu defended the separation of powers (legislative, executive, judicial).
- Rousseau defined the social contract and raised the principle of national sovereignty.
- Voltaire defended the need for a parliament and a tax system.
The Encyclopedia
Two enlightened thinkers, Diderot and D’Alembert, launched an ambitious project: the Encyclopedia. This comprehensive work compiled all contemporary knowledge based on reason and the study of nature. It was a great success and helped spread enlightened ideas. It also contributed to the transmission of knowledge and the proliferation of salons and academies.
Political Transformations
At the end of the seventeenth century, Holland and England experienced a series of political transformations. Simultaneously, enlightened ideas spread to many countries.
British Revolutions
In England, royal power had been limited by Parliament since the Middle Ages. In the seventeenth century, the Stuart dynasty tried to govern without parliamentary control, leading to conflict. In 1649, King Charles I was beheaded, and a republic was proclaimed. Oliver Cromwell transformed the republic into a dictatorship. After Cromwell’s death, Parliament restored the monarchy. Charles II had to accept parliamentary control. In 1679, the habeas corpus was enacted, guaranteeing individual freedoms and preventing arbitrary arrests. In 1689, a second revolution ended absolute monarchy, and Parliament offered the crown to William of Orange. England became the first country with a limited monarchy.
Enlightened Despotism
Enlightened despots and their ministers promoted reforms to benefit the people while retaining decision-making power. Their policies included streamlining state administration, education reform, modernizing agriculture and manufacturing, and partial liberalization of production and commerce. These reforms paved the way for the great liberal revolutions of the nineteenth century.