Epicureanism, Utilitarianism, and Kantian Ethics: A Comparative Overview

Posted on Nov 25, 2024 in Philosophy and ethics

Epicureanism

Epicurus, in line with Aristotle, posits that happiness is the ultimate goal of human life. He equates happiness with pleasure, distinguishing between two types:

  • Static Pleasure: A state of being, characterized by the absence of pain or discomfort (aponia for the body, ataraxia for the mind).
  • Kinetic Pleasure: The process of eliminating pain or discomfort, leading back to a static state of pleasure.

Pleasures are further categorized into those of the body and those of the mind. Epicurus identifies two natural and necessary desires (e.g., hunger, thirst), natural but not necessary desires (e.g., sexual desires), and unnatural and unnecessary desires (e.g., fame, honor).

Utilitarianism

Utilitarianism is an ethical theory based on three core principles:

  1. What is intrinsically valuable to individuals (often happiness or preference satisfaction).
  2. The best state of affairs maximizes the sum of what is intrinsically valuable.
  3. Actions should aim to achieve the best state of affairs.

Thus, an act’s morality is determined by its utility, often summarized as “the greatest welfare for the greatest number.” Utility refers to what is intrinsically valuable, encompassing happiness or preference satisfaction. Utilitarianism advocates for actions that maximize overall happiness in the world.

Negative Utilitarianism

While many utilitarian theories focus on maximizing welfare, negative utilitarianism prioritizes minimizing pain and suffering for the greatest number of people. Proponents argue this approach is more effective, as there are more opportunities to cause harm than to create wealth.

Act vs. Rule Utilitarianism

Different forms of utilitarianism exist:

  • Act Utilitarianism: The best act is the one that maximizes utility in a specific situation.
  • Rule Utilitarianism: The best act is one that follows a rule that, if generally followed, would maximize utility.

Preference Utilitarianism

Preference utilitarianism defines utility in terms of preference satisfaction. It asserts that the right action is the one that produces the best consequences, where “best” is defined by the fulfillment of preferences, including concepts like reputation.

Kantian Ethics of Duty

Kantian ethics distinguishes between two uses of reason:

  • Theoretical Reason: Used to understand the world.
  • Practical Reason: Used to guide actions and decisions, expressed through imperatives.

Imperatives are commands or duties:

  1. Hypothetical Imperatives: Conditional commands (e.g., “If you want to be holy, do X”).
  2. Categorical Imperatives: Unconditional, absolute rules (e.g., “Do not steal”).

Material vs. Formal Ethics

  • Material Ethics: Presume a “real” good (e.g., happiness, pleasure) and determine the means to achieve it. They are empirical, hypothetical, and heteronomous (dependent on external conditions).
  • Formal Ethics (e.g., Kantian ethics): Focus on the form of the moral law, not its content. They are a priori, universal, categorical, and autonomous (reason-based, independent of experience).

Rawls’ Theory of Justice

J. Rawls argues that rational people, under conditions of freedom and equality, would agree on the need for a sense of justice. This idea has universal and unconditional validity. Impartiality, guaranteed by the “veil of ignorance” (where individuals do not know their social position), is essential for achieving fair and unbiased results. Rawls envisions society as a partnership of individuals who recognize and generally agree to abide by certain rules of conduct.