Era of Imperialism: Causes, Consequences, and Global Impact
Imperialism (1875-1914)
A historical phenomenon of territorial expansion by Western European powers, Russia, the United States, and Japan, dominating Africa and Asia. Imperialism coincided with the Second Industrial Revolution, driven by economic interests.
Economic Causes
- Need for raw materials and energy sources for industries.
- Export markets for industrial production.
- Territorial conquest disregarding native populations.
Other Factors of Imperialism
- Political: Land acquisition for national prestige and power. New states like Italy and Germany, and older powers like France and Spain, sought colonial empires.
- Strategic: Colonies for military and economic bases, leading to further territorial expansion.
- Demographic: Population growth in imperial powers led to colonies serving as an “escape valve.”
- Cultural: Imposition of Western languages, cultures, and religions.
The Berlin Conference
In the 1880s, European presence in Africa was limited to coastal areas. Germany’s emergence as a major power prompted Chancellor Bismarck to convene the Berlin Conference. Attendees included European, Ottoman, and other states, resulting in agreements on territorial occupation and free trade along rivers.
Great Empires
- Britain: The most extensive empire, including Canada and Australia. Focused on securing India and expanding in Asia (Afghanistan, Burma).
- France: Indochina.
- Russia: Expansion through Siberia to the Pacific and into Central Asia, encountering Chinese and British interests.
- Italy: Limited presence in Eritrea, Somalia, and Libya (defeated).
- Belgium: Congo.
- Portugal: Angola, Mozambique.
- Netherlands: Dutch East Indies (Indonesia).
- Germany: Kamerun, Tanganyika, and two other African colonies.
- Spain: Equatorial Guinea, and a strip of northern Morocco.
- U.S.: Philippines (acquired from Spain).
- Japan: Expansion into Manchuria and Korea.
Administration of Territories
- Colonies: Direct rule with limited or no citizenship rights for natives.
- Dominions: British colonies with significant white populations, gradually gaining independence (e.g., Canada, Australia).
- Protectorates: Areas with existing state traditions and governments, where imperial powers controlled foreign policy and economic affairs (e.g., parts of Morocco, Southeast Asia).
Formation of Blocs and WWI
The German Emperor’s decision not to renew the agreement with Russia led to stronger ties with Austria-Hungary. Both empires had ambitions in the Balkans. Russia, isolated, allied with France.
- France and Germany clashed over Moroccan territories.
- In the Balkans, Bulgaria declared independence, and Austria-Hungary annexed Bosnia-Herzegovina.
- Serbia, Montenegro, Greece, and Bulgaria formed the Balkan League to challenge the Ottoman Empire (victorious in the First Balkan War).
- The assassination of the Austrian Archduke in Sarajevo triggered World War I.
Consequences of WWI
Demographic
- Ten million dead, mostly young males.
- Twenty million wounded and maimed.
- Higher civilian casualties in later conflicts (WWII).
Economic and Political
- Wartime resource mobilization and economic cooperation.
- Extensive borrowing, particularly from the U.S.
- Collapse of four European empires.
- Spread of liberal parliamentary systems in Europe.
- Loss of European markets.
Social and Cultural
- Workers faced rising prices and lower wages, while speculators profited.
- Increased female participation in industry and the workforce, leading to women’s suffrage.
- Post-war disillusionment and pessimism, questioning Western values.