Essential Chemistry: Functional Groups, Reactions, and Gas Laws

Posted on Jan 14, 2025 in Chemistry

Haloalkanes

Haloalkanes (Alkyl halides) (R-X): Fluoro, chloro, bromo, iodo. In the longest chain, count where the halogen is closest. For more than one, use di, tri, tetra. Common names: MONO: alkyl + ide; DI: alkyl(ene) + ide; TRI: Chloro, fluoro, etc.; TETRA: Carbon + tetra + halogen(ide).

Alcohol formation: R-X + NaOH = R-OH + Na-X

Alcohols

Alcohols (R-OH): Number the chain with the closest -OH. Change “ane” to “ol”. Common name: Use the alkyl name (e.g., Methyl) followed by “alcohol”.

Esterification: RCOOH + HO-R’ = RCOOR’ + HOH

Ethers

Ethers (R-OR’): Named from -yl groups around the oxygen, followed by “ether”.

Aldehydes

Aldehydes (R-C=O-H): Name the longest carbon chain, with the nearest -OH. Example: Methanal. Common names: 1 carbon: form; 2 carbons: acet; 3 carbons: propion; 4 carbons: butyr, followed by “aldehyde”.

Ketones

Ketones (R-C=O-R’): Example: Propanone. Common name: Dimethyl ketone.

Carboxylic Acids

Carboxylic acids (R-COOH): Replace “e” with “oic” and add “acid”. Example: Methanoic acid. Common names: Use prefixes form, acet, propion, butyr, add “ic” and “acid”. Example: Formic acid.

Esters

Esters (RC=OOR’)

Amines

Amines (R-NH2): List the alkyl groups followed by “amine”. Example: Ethylamine.

Stage 2: Common Compounds and Concepts

  • Palmitic acid: Carboxylic acid used in the manufacture of candles.
  • Propanone: Ketone produced by the oxidation of isopropyl alcohol, used as a solvent.
  • Benzaldehyde: Aldehyde known as almond oil.
  • Amines: Functional group that is part of some neurotransmitters and drugs.
  • Antibiotics: Type of drug used to fight infections caused by bacteria.
  • Creams: Oil-and-water emulsion designed to help the skin.
  • Sunscreen: Lotions that absorb UV light.
  • Keratin: Protein found in hair structure.
  • Melanin: Pigment responsible for the color of hair, skin, etc.
  • Retrovirus: Organism that causes AIDS.
  • Ethanol: Alcohol used in the manufacture of legal beverages.
  • Nylon: A type of copolymer.
  • Tetrahydrocannabinol: Active substance of cannabis.
  • Anesthetic: Drug used in surgical practices.
  • Surfactant: Most important ingredient in detergents.
  • Soaps and detergents: Act by the law “Like dissolves like”.
  • Narcotics and drugs that act in the central nervous system: Produce an analgesic and sedative effect.

Stage 3: Redox Reactions and Electrochemistry

Loss of electrons in oxidation: Zn = Zn2+ + 2e–

Gain of electrons in reduction: Cu2+ + 2e– = Cu

Oxidized species is the reducing agent. Reduced species is the oxidizing agent. Anode: Oxidation occurs; Cathode: Reduction occurs.

When the oxidation potential of one species is lower than the oxidation potential of another species (that is being reduced), the reaction is not spontaneous. Electrolytic cells use energy from an external source to drive a nonspontaneous reaction. Electrolysis is a technique to drive a nonspontaneous reaction, often involving molten salts such as liquid CaCl2.

Electroplating

Electroplating: Cleans silver and uses electrolysis to drive the reaction.

Anode: Ag = Ag+ + e–

Cathode: Ag+ + e– = Ag

In half-cells, zinc is the anode, and copper is the cathode.

Stage 4: Gas Laws

Boyle’s Law

Boyle’s Law: The pressure of a gas is inversely related to its volume when temperature (T) and the number of moles (n) are constant. (P1V1 = P2V2). Pressure increases when volume decreases.

Charles’ Law

Charles’ Law: The Kelvin temperature of a gas is directly related to its volume when pressure (P) and the number of moles (n) are constant. (V1/T1 = V2/T2). When temperature decreases, volume decreases as well.

Gay-Lussac’s Law

Gay-Lussac’s Law: The pressure exerted by a gas is directly related to its temperature when volume (V) and the number of moles (n) are constant. (P1/T1 = P2/T2).

Combined Gas Law

Combined Gas Law: P1V1/T1 = P2V2/T2

Avogadro’s Law

Avogadro’s Law: V1/n1 = V2/n2

Standard Temperature and Pressure (STP)

STP: Temperature: 273 K; Pressure: 1 atm (760 mm Hg); Molar Volume: 22.4 L

When asked for the volume and given grams: Divide grams by molar mass and multiply by 22.4.

When asked for the grams and given the volume: Divide volume by 22.4 and multiply by molar mass.

Density: Molar mass / Molar volume

Ideal Gas Law

Ideal Gas Law: PV = nRT

R = 0.0821 (L x atm / mol x K)

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