Ethical Theories: Happiness, Pleasure, and Practical Reason
Diversity of Ethical Theories
Different ethical theories have emerged, each offering a criterion of rationality:
- Aristotle and the Rise of Hedonistic Morality in 4th Century Greece: The pursuit of happiness.
- Kant, the 18th Century, and the Final Dialogue in the Fourth Quarter of the 20th Century: Certain beings should not be manipulated; we should acknowledge their dignity, and discretion should be applied to truly respect that dignity.
Ethical Theories and Religions
Religions have contributed to ethics. The first states that every human being should be treated humanely because they have an inviolable dignity. The second is the Golden Rule: Do not do to others what you would not want done to yourself.
- Buddhist Happiness: Happiness is achieved in the state of Nirvana. According to Buddhist believers, the happiest person is not the one who has the most but the one who wants the least.
- Christian Happiness: For Christians, the fundamental component of happiness is a relationship with God and one’s neighbor. The selfish person ends up being miserable, while opening up to God and other people leads to a happiness that lasts beyond death.
Aristotelian Tradition: The Ultimate End
Aristotle identifies happiness as the ultimate end; we all want to be happy. Intelligently choosing the means that lead to happiness is exercising the virtue of prudence.
The song means: One acts prudently who chooses the middle term, because that is the virtue, but not the arithmetic mean but the compromise that is appropriate for each of us.
Acquiring Prudence
- Remember-Know: We can improve this by recalling past experiences.
- Instruction: Learning what is most appropriate in each case.
- Be Circumspect: Taking into account the largest possible number of circumstances.
- Ability to Foresee the Future
Hedonistic Tradition: Pleasure as the Goal
Epicurus of Samos initiated the hedonistic tradition.
- All flee from pain and seek pleasure.
- Happiness is finding maximum pleasure.
- Moral reason is a calculating reason.
Social and Individual Hedonism
Epicurean hedonism is individualistic. In modernity, hedonism becomes social and is called utilitarianism, which considers that humans are endowed with social sentiments such as sympathy. When choosing between two courses of action, one should choose the one that proposes the greatest amount of higher pleasure for the greatest number of people.
Happiness and Well-being
Happiness and well-being may seem the same but are not. Many people can have a good welfare state and not be happy. Bertrand Russell says this is due to:
- Fear of Boredom: People resort to dangerous means like drugs.
- Over-commitment: Family relationships are sacrificed for economic success.
- Stress: Concern over little things.
- Envy
- Feeling of Guilt
- Persecution Mania: Thinking everyone is against you.
- Fear of What Others Will Say
Kantian Tradition: Practical Reason
Immanuel Kant, in the 18th century, stated that to be happy, reason should be used as a calculator. Reason gives us our own laws on how to act but does not promise us happiness. Humanity itself is called the categorical imperative. The reason that gives these laws is not calculated but practical. To find out if a rule is a moral law, it should be submitted to the following:
- Universal law respecting any being that is valuable in itself.
- Protect beings that are ends in themselves.
- Universal law in a kingdom of ends.
Types of Duties
- Positive Duties: Orders to do something are called imperfect duties and are not as demanding.
- Negative Duties: Prohibitions are called perfect duties, trying to avoid evil.