Ethical Theories: Material and Formal Approaches
Ethical Theories
1. Material Ethical Theories
- Eudaemonism (Aristotle): The ultimate goal of human beings is happiness, achieved through the actualization of reason, our defining characteristic. Goodness is acquired through repeated actions that form habits. Virtuous habits lead to happiness. Virtue lies in the mean, which is objective but also relative to each individual.
- Hedonism (Epicurus): Based on the pursuit of pleasure and the avoidance of pain. It emphasizes a reflective approach to reality. The moral criterion is that conduct is valuable if it provides pleasure. A moral critique is made of what produces pleasure and what does not. The goal is to achieve intense and lasting pleasure.
- Utilitarianism: This theory equates good with utility. The moral value of an action lies in its practical effects, aiming to achieve the greatest happiness for the greatest number of people. The pursuit of general utility is based on self-interest, with the belief that maximizing individual interest benefits all.
- Material Ethics: Attempts to give substance to moral action without losing universality. It aims to define what should be done and what is valid for everyone. Values are independent of things but reside within them.
2. Formal Ethical Theories
- Kantian Formalism (Immanuel Kant): The essential features of morality are universality and necessity. Ethics must be formal, devoid of empirical content. The goodness of an action lies in the *way* it is performed; the will is determined by duty. Action is manifested in categorical imperatives, which are commands to act necessarily out of duty, independent of experience.
Emotivist Theory (David Hume): Hume, an 18th-century empiricist and Enlightenment philosopher, believed the most important aspect of morality is moral impression, or feeling.
Historical Context: 18th-century England was the century of Enlightenment, characterized by progress, liberty, and values such as freedom, tolerance, faith in reason, and belief in education and politics. England had a parliamentary monarchy with a division of powers. Philosophers championed dialogue and progress.
Within this framework, a theory of human nature emerged. Ethics must fit into the conception of humanity, with Newton’s scientific method as a model. This project, based on empirical evidence, focused on understanding human nature. Experience and impressions about behavior are crucial.
Hume’s text discusses the impressions that conduct causes, leading to feelings of pleasure/displeasure and approval/disapproval. Moral judgments are based on these impressions, not reasoning.
Origin and Foundation of Morality: Hume argues that reason is *not* the basis of moral judgments because it has clearly defined responsibilities: understanding the powers of taste and truth to distinguish right from wrong. Moral judgments are the work of taste and the ability to form impressions, not reason. The origin and foundation of morality do not fall within the sphere of reason (which only has jurisdiction in science and facts). Hume critiques rationalism (ethical theory underpinning reason).
Example: A man runs over a person, having run a red light. Two situations arise: a municipal guard takes action and makes a report, supporting the reality of the facts (reason). As a viewer, these reasons are less important; we condemn the behavior because it disregarded the person’s physical integrity. Our impression is disgust, while the police acted with coolness and rationality.