Ethics, Politics, and Citizenship in the Modern World

Posted on Nov 1, 2024 in Philosophy and ethics

QUESTIONNAIRE

Items 1-5

1. The Meaning of Ethics: I Am Myself and My Circumstances

Ortega y Gasset referred to circumstances as the set of elements imposed on human beings. He affirmed that these elements are part of one’s self, underscoring the concept of “I am me and my circumstances.”

2. Practical Reason

Practical reason allows us to:

  • Recognize the existence of moral dilemmas.
  • Judge the potential for action.
  • Choose from possibilities, weighing pros and cons.

3. Theories About the Origin of Consciousness

Thoughts on the origin of consciousness differ significantly:

  • Supernatural Origin: Advocates believe consciousness reflects God’s law from within, judging human actions.
  • Naturalists: Consider consciousness a result of human rationality, enabling individuals to judge their actions.
  • Conventionalists: Argue that moral consciousness develops through the influence of social, economic, psychological, or political factors that shape behavior.

4. Factors in the Development of Consciousness

Factors influencing consciousness development include:

  • Psychological Maturity: An individual’s intellectual and emotional development.
  • Environmental Influence: Family, friends, education, economic status, media, social conflicts, etc.

5. Kohlberg’s Developmental Levels of Consciousness

  • Level 1: Pre-conventional: Individualistic and heteronomous morality (imposed externally).
    • Stage 1: Obedience to avoid punishment.
    • Stage 2: Respecting rules for self-interest.
  • Level 2: Conventional
  • Level 3: Post-conventional

Items 6-10

6. Conceptions of Values

Origin of Values
  • Objectivism:
    • Values exist independently of individuals and societies.
    • An objective moral order guides human behavior.
    • Individuals can discover values through reason and turn them into ideals.
    • Championed by thinkers like Plato and Max Scheler.
  • Subjectivism:
    • No objective or universal values exist.
    • Values are human creations.
    • Extreme subjectivism leads to radical individualism, where anything goes.
    • Championed by thinkers like Friedrich Nietzsche and Jean-Paul Sartre.
Validity of Values
  • Moral Absolutism:
    • Values are inherently valid and absolute.
    • Values are not constrained by space and time.
    • Can lead to dogmatism.
  • Moral Relativism:
    • Values are relative.
    • No objective or universal truths exist.
    • Can lead to extreme relativism.

7. Achieving a Universal Ethic of Minimums

Considerations for a universal ethic:

  • Moral evaluations are influenced by individual circumstances.
  • Rational dialogue is necessary to agree on objective and universal minimums.
  • Respect for cultural, religious, and other differences is essential.

8. Theories Advocating for the Disappearance of the State

  • Anarchist Theories: Favor abolishing the state and replacing it with a free association of individuals.
  • Marxism: Advocates for the eventual extinction of the state. In a communist society, with equality among individuals, the state becomes unnecessary.

9. Contractualist vs. Organismic Conceptions of the State

Organismic Conception
  • Humans are social beings by nature.
  • Living together is essential for survival and development.
  • Leads to an ethical view of politics.
  • The state has an ethical character, aiming for the common good and happiness of citizens.
Contractualism
  • Humans are social beings by convention, not nature.
  • Emphasizes individual freedom and the ability to determine moral standards.
  • Individual interests are prioritized over collective interests.

10. Natural Law vs. Legal Positivism

  • Legal Positivism: Law is a set of rules created by human authorities based on their will.
  • Natural Law: A guiding principle exists that underlies all laws.

Items 11-15

11. Ideas in the History of Citizenship

  • The concept of citizenship has evolved throughout history, with periods of progress and setbacks.
  • Its development is linked to ideas of equality and individual freedoms.
  • The history of citizenship is a story of the conquest of liberty.

12. Types of Citizenship

  • Political Citizenship: The right to vote and participate in political processes.
  • Civil Citizenship: Equality before the law, including freedoms of expression, religion, thought, and property.
  • Social Citizenship: Rights to health, education, pensions, retirement, etc.

13. Traditions of Modern Citizenship

  • Liberal Citizenship: A legal status with rights and duties. Freedom is the absence of coercion, with less emphasis on civic virtues.
  • Republican Citizenship: Emphasizes shared values and a collective understanding of freedom.

14. Marshallian and Post-Marshallian Citizenship

  • Marshallian Citizenship: T.H. Marshall argued for the inclusion of social rights alongside civil and political rights. Full citizenship requires all three.
  • Post-Marshallian Citizenship: Critiques Marshall’s linear and cumulative view of citizenship development. Challenges the assumption that the three types of rights always develop in a specific order.

15. Criticism of the Universality of Human Rights

  • Human rights are seen as a Western concept.
  • The claim to universality is considered fictitious.
  • Extending human rights to all cultures is viewed as Eurocentric.
  • Universality can conflict with cultural pluralism.

Items 16-24

16. Characteristics of the Subject of Citizenship

  • Active Subjects: Capable of identifying and addressing their own problems.
  • Confident and Responsible Subjects: Open to the world, caring for themselves and others.
  • Truthful and Sincere Subjects: Foster honesty in interactions and agreements with fellow citizens.
  • Participatory Subjects: Engage in civic life and utilize available resources to protect their interests and those of the community.

17. Civic Virtues

  • Tolerance: Respecting and accepting differences.
  • Civic Courage: Speaking out for just causes.
  • Solidarity: Supporting those who are oppressed.
  • Participation: Engaging in public discourse and contributing to the community.

18. Athenian Democracy of Pericles

  • Majority rule.
  • Equality before the law.
  • Universal participation.
  • Participation as a virtue.
  • Obedience to the law as the highest virtue.
  • Trial by jury.

19. Dahl and Touraine’s Reflections on Democracy

  • Dahl: Analyzed the enemies of democracy, arguing that it has lost legitimacy but remains a threat. Emphasized criteria for democratic governance, including free and fair elections, inclusive citizenship, and critical education.
  • Touraine: Identified three dimensions of democracy: representation, public participation, and limitation. Each dimension corresponds to a different type of society with its own values (justice, equality, and freedom).

20. Aron’s Basic Ideas of Democracy

  • Popular Sovereignty: Power should reflect the will of the people and be exercised according to rules.
  • Freedom: Linked to participation in a democratic society.
  • Equality: Includes the right to participate in elections.

21. The Media and its Development

The development of the media is linked to capitalism and democracy. Today, there is a close relationship between media and politics.

22. Plurality in the Media

Objectives
  • Disseminating news and diverse opinions.
  • Enabling comparison of different viewpoints.
Positive Effects
  • Fostering a spirit of citizenship.
  • Promoting political transparency.
Requirements
  • Objectivity and impartiality in reporting.

23. Risks of Media Democracy

  • Deterioration of language through the use of slogans instead of arguments.
  • Politics as a spectacle, with politicians becoming media stars.
  • Reduced citizen engagement, with citizens becoming passive spectators.

24. Vocabulary

  • Moral Consciousness: Practical reason’s ability to grasp moral principles, distinguish right from wrong, and judge the morality of actions.
  • Value: What makes something worthy of appreciation and pursuit.
  • Political Science: The study of political phenomena, including description, explanation, and prediction.
  • Right: A set of rules intended to regulate human coexistence peacefully.
  • Media Democracy: Based on active participation and diverse opinions, influenced by the media.
  • Counterpower: In a democracy, the media’s role in limiting political power and preventing abuses.
  • Media System: Communicators with significant public presence and influence over public opinion.
  • Globalization: The increasing interdependence of countries and the global impact of economic and environmental issues.
  • Eurocentric: A worldview that considers European culture superior to others.