Europe 1815-1870: Restoration, Revolution, and National Unification

Posted on Mar 31, 2025 in History

The Restoration Period

This period represented an attempt to return Europe’s politics, society, and economy to the Ancien Régime that existed prior to the 1789 French Revolution.

The Congress of Vienna (1814-1815)

A meeting of the powers victorious over Napoleon: Austria, Prussia, Russia, and Great Britain. Key decisions included:

  • A Return to Monarchy (1815-1830)

    Louis XVIII (1815-1824)

    The restored king of France. He established a constitutional monarchy under the Charter of 1814, balancing royal power with some liberal concessions, granting a charter.

    Charles X (1824-1830)

    He attempted to reinforce absolutism despite the granted Charter, leading to increased persecution of liberals. His reign ended with the July Revolution of 1830, which proclaimed Louis Philippe d’Orléans king under a constitutional monarchy (1830-1848).

  • A Return to Pre-1789 Borders

    The Congress of Vienna redrew borders and created buffer states around France to contain its influence. These included the United Kingdom of the Netherlands, the Swiss Confederation, and the Kingdom of Piedmont-Sardinia.

    Alliances
    • Quadruple Alliance: Great Britain, Austria, Prussia, and Russia. Formed to safeguard against potential French aggression and maintain the Vienna settlement.
    • Holy Alliance: Austria, Prussia, and Russia. Aimed to uphold monarchical power based on Christian principles and persecute liberalism and revolutionary movements.

The Rise of Liberalism

A political system based on the ideas originating from the French Revolution, emphasizing:

  • Individual freedom and inalienable rights.
  • Popular or national sovereignty.
  • Censitary or universal suffrage.
  • Separation of powers: legislative, executive, and judicial.

Liberal Revolutions of 1820

Spain

A liberal uprising led by Rafael del Riego forced King Ferdinand VII to reinstate the Constitution of 1812, establishing a constitutional monarchy known as the Trienio Liberal (1820-1823).

  • Moderate liberals (doceañistas) governed from 1820-1822.
  • More radical liberals (exaltados) governed from 1822-1823.
The Congress of Verona (1822)

This congress authorized intervention to end liberalism in Spain. A French army (the “Hundred Thousand Sons of Saint Louis”), sent by Louis XVIII, invaded in 1823, restoring absolute power to Ferdinand VII.

Liberal Revolutions of 1848

France

A liberal revolution began, fueled by student protests, journalists, labor unrest, and opposition to the corruption of Louis Philippe d’Orléans’ regime. This led to the establishment of the Second French Republic (1848-1851).

Key demands included:

  • Popular sovereignty
  • Universal male suffrage
  • Social justice
  • Individual and collective liberties
Napoleon III

Louis-Napoléon Bonaparte was elected President. In 1851, he staged a coup d’état and proclaimed the Second Empire (1852-1870). The Empire collapsed after the defeat at the Battle of Sedan in 1870, which led to the proclamation of the Third French Republic.

The Force of Nationalism

Based on the principle of National Sovereignty, where the nation itself is the subject of sovereignty. A nation was defined as a group of people inhabiting a particular territory, linked by common elements such as race or ethnicity, language, history, culture, or religion.

Revolutionary Waves of 1820

Greece

In 1821, Greece revolted against Ottoman (Turkish) rule. The Greek War of Independence concluded in 1829, securing Greece’s independence.

Revolutionary Wave of 1830

Belgium

Achieved independence from the United Kingdom of the Netherlands.

Poland

Attempted to rebel against the Russian Empire in the November Uprising (1830-1831) but was ultimately unsuccessful.

Revolutionary Wave of 1848

Germany and Italy

National-liberal revolts occurred in the German states (leading to the Frankfurt National Assembly) and in various Italian states (including northern duchies and the Papal States), though these initial efforts were largely unsuccessful.

Unification of Italy

The process was primarily led by the Kingdom of Piedmont-Sardinia.

  • Initial attempts failed after defeats in 1848 at the Battles of Custoza and Novara.
  • In 1859, with the help of Napoleon III of France, Piedmont defeated Austria in the Battles of Magenta and Solferino, annexing Lombardy.
  • In 1860, Modena, Parma, Romagna, and Tuscany were incorporated following plebiscites.
  • Giuseppe Garibaldi and his “Thousand Redshirts” conquered the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies in 1860, which subsequently joined Piedmont.
  • In 1861, the Kingdom of Italy was proclaimed, with Victor Emmanuel II as King.
  • Venetia was incorporated in 1866 following the Austro-Prussian War.
  • The remaining Papal States, including Rome, were annexed in 1870, and Rome was proclaimed the capital.

Common Traits (Italian & German Unifications)

  • Unification was led by the most developed state within each region: Piedmont in Italy and Prussia in Germany.
  • Unification was achieved through a combination of diplomacy and several armed conflicts.
  • The bourgeoisie emerged as the leading social class in the newly unified states, often leading to systems characterized by conservative liberalism.