European Absolutism and Enlightenment: A Historical Examination
1. Absolutism as a Political Regime
Absolutism, a hierarchical system with political and religious support, manifested as an absolute monarchy linked to inherited dynasties. Key characteristics include:
- The monarch embodied the state and held absolute power.
- The monarch, an aristocrat, was considered “first among equals” within the nobility.
- Strong religious support reinforced the idea of divine right.
- Limited legal constraints on the monarch’s power.
- European assemblies (estates) still existed.
- Permanent armies and administrations required new taxes.
Theorists of Absolutism
- Jean Bodin: Author of Six Books of the Republic, defined national sovereignty as absolute and perpetual, above the law.
- Thomas Hobbes: In Leviathan, argued for a singular, all-encompassing state power. He defended absolute monarchy as a necessary response to inherent human selfishness and the “war of all against all.”
- Jacques-Bénigne Bossuet: Emphasized the divine right of kings, drawing from scripture to argue that the monarch, as God’s representative, was accountable to neither the Church nor the people.
2. Major European States in the Late 18th Century
Western Europe
- Great Britain: Advanced parliamentary system, trade, and industry, with control of the seas.
- France: Continental power with prestigious monarchy and international influence. The Bourbons served as a model for other absolute monarchies.
- Spain: Monarchy modeled after France, allied against France, with extensive American domains.
Central Europe
- Germany: The former Holy Roman Empire was fragmented into various states.
- Kingdom of Prussia: Emerging from the Holy Roman Empire in the 18th century, rivaled Austria, with an effective administration and army.
- Habsburg Domains: Territories held by the Holy Roman Emperors.
- Kingdom of Naples: Subject to rivalry among European powers for control of the Italian peninsula. Bourbon rule in Naples, Habsburg rule in Milan, Papal states, and republics like Genoa and Venice.
3. Physiocracy and Economic Liberalism
18th-century economic thought saw the rise of physiocrats like Quesnay and Turgot, who criticized mercantilism. They believed wealth derived from land and nature, advocating for minimal state intervention in the economy. Their motto was “laissez-faire, laissez-passer” (“let things alone, let it go, the world goes by itself”).
Classical liberalism, founded by Adam Smith, emphasized individual self-interest as a driver of general welfare and wealth creation. Labor was seen as the primary source of wealth, and free trade between nations was advocated.
4. Key Figures
- John Locke (1632-1704): English philosopher and father of empiricism and modern liberalism. Favored limited monarchy and distinguished between legislative and executive powers.
- Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679): English philosopher and theorist of absolutism.
- Montesquieu (1689-1755): French historian and political thinker, proponent of the separation of powers (The Spirit of the Laws, 1748).
- Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778): Swiss writer, philosopher, and musician.