European and American Revolutions: 1820-1848

Attempts to Return to the Old Regimen

A conference was held in Vienna with Austria, Russia, and Prussia in attendance. The goals were to create a new map of Europe and establish a new political system, ideologically driven by the Holy Alliance.

A New Map of Europe

The new map of Europe was justified by Napoleon’s defeat but resulted from the interests of countries like Austria, Prussia, Russia, and England.

The Holy Alliance

Initially, the Holy Alliance was a statement without a clear political commitment. However, it became an instrument justifying interventionism. Its goal was to establish the right of its members to intervene in any country where revolutionary threats existed.

Revolutions of 1820

  • Spain: Anti-absolutism against Ferdinand VII. The 1812 Constitution failed due to the Holy Alliance.
  • Naples: The fight for freedom led to the adoption of the 1812 Spanish Constitution.
  • Portugal: A fight for liberalism occurred.
  • Piedmont: A revolution took place.
  • Greece: Nationalism led to a fight for freedom and independence.

Revolutions of 1830

  • France: A conservative reaction against King Charles X led to a new king, Louis Philippe of Orleans. He implemented a more liberal constitution, suppressing freedom and dissolving the Chamber of Deputies. The royal army was defeated.
  • Belgium: Liberalism and nationalism led to independence.
  • Poland: Liberalism and nationalism in the late 1830s were met with Russian repression and failed.
  • Modena, Parma, Bologna, Papal States: Liberalism was met with Austrian repression and failed.
  • Spain: The death of Ferdinand VII led to a civil war and the Carlist Wars. The Constitutions of 1834 and 1837 were established.
  • America: Liberalism and nationalism led to the independence of Spanish and Portuguese colonies.

Revolutions of 1848

  • France: An economic crisis, democratization, and workers’ struggles were met with repression and the separation of the bourgeoisie and laborers. This led to the establishment of an empire.
  • Vienna: Liberalism fought against a constitutional parliamentary monarchy and feudalism.
  • Italy (Milan, Venice, Naples, Piedmont): Liberalism, nationalism, and unification efforts failed due to Austrian repression.
  • Austria-Hungary (Czech Republic, Slovakia, Serbia, Hungary): Liberalism and nationalism failed.
  • Germany: Liberalism and nationalism led to a constitution and parliament, but ultimately failed.

Nationalism in the 19th Century

Nationalism was an ideology developed in the 19th century, based on the concept of “nation.” It became the foundation of future nation-states and the reasoning behind some of the most important struggles for independence or the creation of new states.

  • Liberal: Based on the principle of national sovereignty.
  • Romantic or Historicist: Identifies the nation as a political community rooted in a historical period.
  • Integrator: Seeks to unite different territories.
  • Disintegrator: Seeks independence or the separation of one or more territories joined in a political community.

German Unification

The German state was under the influence of the Kingdom of Prussia. The German nationalist movement arose to build a “Great Germany.” Austria directed its efforts toward creating a “Small Germany.” The Prussian kingdom, led by William I and Bismarck in 1862, was the architect of German unity, following the policy tabled in the Frankfurt Parliament.

Italian Unification

The Risorgimento was the process that led to the unification of a new liberal state in Italy. The engine of unity was the Kingdom of Piedmont-Sardinia, a constitutional monarchy and the only state that maintained liberal institutions.