European Colonization of Africa: Scramble, Conflicts, and Legacy
The Scramble for Africa
Many European countries scrambled for African territories, driven by economic opportunities and territorial expansion. The Berlin Conference gathered nations like Portugal, France, Spain, and the United Kingdom to establish guidelines for acquiring African lands. Key agreements included freedom of ship traffic on the Niger and Congo rivers, prohibition of the slave trade, and the Principle of Effectivity, requiring powers to demonstrate actual control over claimed colonies. Africa became the stage for various European projects, such as Portugal’s Pink Map for Mozambique and Angola. This project clashed with British interests, leading to a British Ultimatum that forced Portugal to abandon its plans, a decision heavily criticized by Portuguese republicans. This event also influenced the creation of the Portuguese national anthem and marked the end of the monarchy. By the late 20th century, European colonization intensified. France imposed its culture, restricting marriages to white French individuals. England also implemented its culture, but without equality for Africans. Portugal, while more tolerant, still promoted its culture. Colonial rule varied, including economic companies administering large territories, direct rule with centralized administrations, indirect rule through indigenous leaders, and settler rule with significant European immigration. Europeans justified colonialism with the idea of civilizing Africa, ignoring existing African cultures and identities.
Civil War in Nigeria
In 1885, Britain claimed a sphere of influence in West Africa. They controlled the Yoruba through indirect rule but struggled with the Igbo, who lacked defined leaders. In 1906, southern Nigeria became a protectorate. The introduction of Warrant-chiefs was a way to implement indirect rule in Igboland. The three main ethnic groups in Nigeria—Hausa Fulani, Yoruba, and Igbo—had significant differences that led to conflicts. The British left them to resolve their issues, which were exacerbated by their differences and British influence. The Hausa Fulani adopted traditional rule with an autocratic Islamic hierarchy, rejecting Christian missionaries. The Yoruba had a less autocratic monarchical system and accepted Western education. The Igbo had democratically organized villages, valued personal achievement, and were open to Western education and Christianity. Nigeria gained independence in 1960. Conflicts escalated into a civil war, partly due to the Hausa’s majority in the population and parliament. In 1966, an Igbo coup was followed by a Hausa counter-coup, leading to massacres of Igbo Christians in the Muslim North. The Nigerian army blockaded Biafra, causing widespread starvation. In 1967, the Republic of Biafra declared independence, led by General Ojuhuru.