European History: 18th-20th Century Transformations
4.2 The Enlightened Despotism
Most European monarchs continued to exercise absolute power. The enlightened despots and their ministers promoted reforms to benefit the people while retaining decision-making power. Their reformist policies included rationalizing state administration, reforming education, modernizing agriculture, and partially liberalizing production and trade.
1 – The Outbreak of the French Revolution
1.3 The End of the Old Regime
The people of Paris supported the Third Estate’s representatives. Fearing the royal troops would arrest the deputies, on July 14th they stormed the Bastille, took up arms, and defended the revolutionary process by force. The revolt spread to the countryside, sparking an anti-seigneurial revolt. Amid popular radicalism, the National Constituent Assembly decreed the abolition of feudal privileges on August 4th and issued the Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen.
2 The French Revolution Stages
2.1 The Phases of the Revolution
• The Constitutional Monarchy (1789-1792): Supported by the conservative bourgeoisie aiming to reach an agreement with the king and the privileged to abolish the old regime and impose liberalism.
• The Democratic Republic (1792-1794): Promoted by the radical bourgeoisie and the popular sectors seeking a more profound transformation of society into a democratic and egalitarian one.
• The Bourgeois Republic (1794-1799): Marked a return to power of the conservative bourgeoisie, establishing the dominance of property owners.
4.1 Liberalism and Capitalism
In the late eighteenth century, several British thinkers defined economic liberalism. Adam Smith stood out, establishing the principles of liberalism:
• The pursuit of maximum profit is the engine of the economy.
• Various interests are balanced in the market through the price mechanism, matching supply with demand.
• The state should not interfere in the economy’s functioning and allow the free development of individual interests.
3 The Beginning of Industrialization
3.1 Problems of Spanish Industrialization
The main factors negatively influencing industrialization were:
• The low purchasing power of the Spanish population due to widespread peasant poverty.
• Lack of investment and industrial bourgeoisie in many regions.
• Transport problems, including the absence of good roads and rail delays.
• Shortage of energy sources: few usable water resources for hydropower and poor-quality coal.
• Spain’s distance from the most industrialized European nations hampered raw material acquisition and production sales.
6. Spanish Society of the Nineteenth Century
6.1 The New Leadership Class
The landed nobility, having lost seigneurial rights but retaining land, continued to play an important societal role. The new wealthy gentry shared social dominance with the nobility and owned new industries, large companies, and banks. The middle bourgeoisie, or middle class, was small, consisting of small industrialists, traders, etc.
1 The Imperialism and Its Causes
1.2 The Causes of Colonialism
• Economic: European countries needed to sell surplus production and seek new markets.
• Demographic: European population growth in the nineteenth century led to overpopulation, job scarcity, and social tensions.
• Political: European borders stabilized in the late nineteenth century, necessitating territorial expansion outside Europe.
• Ideological: Conservative nationalism advocated the superiority of some nations and their right to impose on others.
5. The Causes of World War I
5.1 Colonialism and Nationalism
• Rivalry between colonial powers: Conflicts between rival empires often occurred in Morocco.
• Nationalist fervor: Tension between Germany and France since the French defeat in the Franco-Prussian War.
• Conflict in the Balkans: This area was a hotbed of tension since the mid-nineteenth century.
5.2 Arms Race and Alliances
Discomfort among major powers led to an arms race. In 1882, Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Italy signed the Triple Alliance. Later, the Triple Entente was formed.
5.3 The Outbreak of the War
Austria declared war on Serbia, aiming to end Serbian influence and extend its dominance in the Balkans. Russia intervened to protect Serbia, and Germany, allied with Austria, declared war on Russia and France. Britain joined when German armies invaded Belgium to encircle the French.
7.1 Treaty of Versailles
This treaty was the most significant peace agreement with Germany. Signed in Versailles, it imposed harsh conditions on Germany:
• Germany was declared solely responsible for the war and forced to pay heavy reparations.
• Its army and navy were almost entirely dismantled, and rearmament was forbidden.
• Territories like Alsace and Lorraine were returned to France, Schleswig to Denmark, and two cantons to Belgium.
2.3 Stalinism
Stalinist political economy imposed a collectivist society to transform the Soviet Union into a major industrial power. This involved:
• Banning private property, land, factories, and banks.
• Prioritizing heavy industry to build necessary infrastructure.
• Instituting a state-led economy with five-year plans for agricultural and industrial production.
This resulted in rapid industrialization, but agriculture lagged due to its subordination to industry. Stalin established a dictatorship where the Communist Party controlled all state bodies, reinforced by a cult of personality.
4.1 From Stock Market Crash to the Great Depression
The stock market crash precipitated the bankruptcy of many banks. The crisis spread to industry, commerce, and agriculture, causing the Great Depression. To overcome it, governments implemented measures such as aid to enterprises, creation of public companies, control over state banks, social reforms with public works, increased wages, and reduced working hours.
Italian Fascism
Mussolini emerged in a war-torn Italy, advocating for a strong state. He gained support from the bourgeoisie, Catholic Church, and monarchy. The king appointed him head of government. Freedom was restricted, enemies were persecuted, and the state directed all aspects of life.
6.1 Weimar Republic (II Republic)
The post-war years were difficult for Germany. At the end of World War I, the Kaiser abdicated, and a republic was declared. Hitler convinced many that Jews, communists, and democrats were responsible for the crisis. The Nazi party won most elections, and Hitler was proclaimed Chancellor.