European History: Humanism, Reformation, and Renaissance

Posted on Oct 22, 2024 in History

Humanism and the Renaissance

Humanism (14th-15th Centuries)

The 14th century was a time of crisis in Europe, followed by recovery and the strengthening of monarchies in the 15th century. Humanism emerged as a cultural renewal movement in 15th-century Italy, spreading throughout Europe by the early 16th century.

Characteristics of Humanism:

  • Renewed confidence in human potential.
  • Increased secularization, with a shift away from a solely God-centric worldview towards a more human-centric one (anthropocentrism).
  • Revival of classical knowledge and art.
  • Advancements in science and geographical discoveries.
  • Invention of the printing press.
  • Rise of academies.

The Reformation (16th Century)

Initiated by Martin Luther, an Augustinian monk, the Reformation challenged the Catholic Church. Luther criticized practices like the sale of indulgences, arguing that only God could forgive sins. The construction of St. Peter’s Basilica was largely funded by indulgences.

Luther’s excommunication and support from German monks and princes led to conflict between Emperor Charles V and several German states.

Causes of the Reformation:

  • Relaxed Church practices.
  • Sale of indulgences.
  • Desire for a new religious experience.

Characteristics of Protestantism:

  • Salvation by faith alone.
  • Universal priesthood, emphasizing individual faith and rejecting the Church as an intermediary.
  • The Bible as the sole source of religious authority.
  • Recognition of only baptism and communion as sacraments.

Impact of the Reformation:

  • Division of Christianity.
  • The Counter-Reformation, including the Council of Trent, which implemented reforms such as:
    • Banning the sale of indulgences.
    • Establishing seminaries for the education of priests.
    • Requiring bishops and priests to reside in their dioceses and parishes.
    • Founding the Society of Jesus (Jesuits).

The Renaissance

The Renaissance witnessed a shift towards individualism in art. Patronage played a crucial role, with wealthy individuals and institutions supporting artists.

Renaissance art drew inspiration from Greco-Roman antiquity, emphasizing harmony, proportion, and anatomical accuracy. It also incorporated mathematical principles.

Quattrocento (15th Century):

  • Architecture: Focused on creating rational space. Key figures: Brunelleschi and Alberti (Florence).
  • Sculpture: Emphasis on the human form. Key figures: Donatello and Ghiberti.
  • Painting: Mastery of perspective. Key figures: Masaccio, Piero della Francesca, Botticelli.

Cinquecento (16th Century):

  • Architecture: St. Peter’s Basilica (Rome) designed by Bramante and Michelangelo.
  • Sculpture: Michelangelo dominated, focusing on expressing emotions. Other key figures: Benvenuto Cellini.
  • Painting: Key figures: Leonardo da Vinci, Raphael, Michelangelo (Sistine Chapel), Giorgione, Titian, Tintoretto.

Other Religious Movements

Calvinism:

A Christian doctrine emphasizing God’s sovereignty, developed by John Calvin.

Anglicanism:

Describes the liturgical traditions of the Church of England, established by Henry VIII after separating from the Catholic Church.

Renaissance in Spain

Sculpture and Painting:

  • Religious themes dominated due to Church patronage.
  • Sculpture: Altarpieces and pasos (statues used in Holy Week processions) were prominent. Key figures: Alonso Berruguete and Juan de Juni. Main material: polychromed wood.
  • Painting: Religious themes with Italian influence. Key figures: Luis de Morales, Alonso Sánchez Coello, El Greco.

Architecture:

Four distinct styles:

  • Isabelline Gothic: Blend of Gothic and Renaissance styles during the reign of the Catholic Monarchs.
  • Plateresque: Characterized by ornate decoration.
  • Classical: Emphasized classical elements.
  • Herrerian: Austere and monumental style (named after Juan de Herrera).

The Habsburg Dynasty in Spain (16th-17th Centuries)

The Habsburgs (Austrias)

Two distinct phases:

  • Golden Age: Charles I (also Holy Roman Emperor Charles V) and Philip II.
  • Decline: Philip III, Philip IV, Charles II.

Foreign Policy of Charles I:

Three major conflicts: Wars against France, the Ottoman Turks, and German Protestant princes.

Reign of Philip II:

  • Inheritance: Inherited vast territories from Charles I.
  • Established the court in Madrid.
  • Defended Catholicism and fought against Protestantism.
  • Domestic Policy: Faced the Morisco Revolt in the Alpujarras mountains.
  • Foreign Policy:
    • Intervention in European wars to support Catholicism.
    • Conflicts with the Ottoman Empire.
    • Defeat of the Spanish Armada (Invincible Armada).

Economy of the 16th Century:

  • Period of economic growth.
  • Influx of gold and silver from the Americas.
  • Land ownership concentrated in the hands of the nobility, resulting in low agricultural productivity.
  • Importance of sheep farming and wool exports.
  • Internal and external trade, including goods from the Americas.

Society of the 16th Century:

  • Population growth.
  • Predominantly rural society.
  • Stratified social structure.
  • Nobility held political and social power.
  • Clergy wielded significant influence.
  • Presence of Moriscos (Muslims who converted to Christianity) and conversos (Jews who converted to Christianity).
  • Commoners bore the burden of taxation.

Economy of the 17th Century:

  • Agricultural decline.
  • Decline in livestock farming.
  • Crisis in crafts and trade.
  • State bankruptcy.

Society of the 17th Century:

  • Demographic crisis due to:
    • Emigration to the Americas.
    • War casualties.
    • Expulsion of the Moriscos.
    • Plague epidemics.
  • Social problems:
    • Impoverishment of peasants, artisans, and lower nobility, leading to increased begging and vagrancy (picaresque).

Absolutism

  • Shift in the balance of power in Europe:
    • France emerged as the leading European power.
    • The political center shifted to Northern Europe.
  • Consolidation of nation-states.
  • Growing acceptance of religious freedom.

Characteristics of Absolutism:

  • Divine right of kings: The king’s authority is derived from God.
  • Concentration of power in the hands of the monarch.
  • The king ruled without consulting his subjects, did not convene assemblies, and councils lost importance.

Age of Exploration

Causes of the Great Voyages of Discovery:

  • Disruption of the Silk Road.
  • Advancements in navigation and shipbuilding.

Voyages:

  • Portuguese explorations in the 15th century.
  • Discovery of America.
  • Exploration of the Pacific Ocean.
  • First circumnavigation of the globe.

Spanish Baroque (17th-18th Centuries)

Architecture:

  • Churrigueresque style: Characterized by extravagant decoration. Key figures: The Churriguera family.
  • Classicist style: Italian influence. Key figures: José Benito de Churriguera (Madrid).
  • Foreign architects (Teodoro Ardemans, Filippo Juvarra, and Francesco Sabatini):
    • Royal Palace of Madrid.
    • Royal Palace of La Granja de San Ildefonso.

Sculpture:

  • Castilian School: Key figure: Gregorio Fernández (Pietà and Recumbent Christ).
  • Andalusian School: Key figures: Juan Martínez Montañés (St. Jerome) and Alonso Cano (Immaculate Conception, Granada Cathedral).

Painting:

  • Andalusian School: Key figures: Francisco de Zurbarán, Bartolomé Esteban Murillo, Juan de Valdés Leal.
  • José de Ribera: Worked in Naples, Italy.
  • Diego Velázquez.
  • Madrid School: Key figures: Juan Carreño de Miranda and Claudio Coello.

The Crisis of the Old Regime (18th Century)

The Old Regime in Spain was characterized by:

  • Absolutist monarchy.
  • Feudal economy based on land ownership.
  • Rigid social hierarchy (Estates system).

The 18th century witnessed the arrival of the Bourbon dynasty in Spain, marking a period of reform and change.