European Imperialism and the Road to World War I: A Historical Overview
1. European Dominance
The Second Industrial Revolution transformed the economies of major European powers. Technical innovations, new forms of work organization, and the growth of banking allowed for a spectacular increase in production, trade, and improved transport. This led to Europe’s dominance on the world stage and the creation of colonial empires—territories under the military, economic, or political sway of a hegemonic power, often called the metropolis.
2. Imperialism and Its Causes
Causes of Colonialism
Economic
- Control over surplus in a monopoly market
- Access to cheaper raw materials
- Opportunities to invest surplus capital
Demographic
- Excess population and the need to alleviate it without losing human potential
Political
- Expansion outside Europe driven by geopolitics, with the belief that great nations should possess large territories
3. Exploration and Conquest
In the mid-19th century, much of the interior of Africa, Asia, and the oceans remained largely unknown. The search for new territories led to scientific expeditions and explorations, primarily by the British and French. Renowned explorers like Livingstone and Stanley led these expeditions. The subsequent conquest was swift, facilitated by Europe’s superior military and technology. European powers exploited internal rivalries between tribes and ethnic groups to weaken resistance and recruit local troops.
4. Colonial Organization
Colonies were organized for control and administration by the colonizing nation.
- Colonies of Exploitation: Focused on economic exploitation, with no self-government. Europeans implemented occupation policies to secure natural resources, particularly in tropical regions deemed unsuitable for European settlement.
- Colonies of Settlement: Due to favorable climatic conditions, low indigenous populations, or specific resources, Europeans migrated to these colonies for permanent settlement. These colonies enjoyed some autonomy and were granted dominion status (e.g., Canada, Australia, New Zealand, and South Africa).
- Protectorates: Territories that, after European occupation, retained their existing state organization, indigenous government, and administrative systems.
5. The Scramble for Africa
From 1870, the colonization of Africa accelerated. It was a brutal process that resulted in the complete domination of the continent, except for Liberia and Abyssinia. Britain and France, with established bases since the 18th century, aimed to create continuous empires: Britain from North to South, and France from West to East. King Leopold II of Belgium acquired a vast private colony along the Congo River. Germany and Italy joined the scramble later, leading to tensions and the Berlin Conference, which established rules and divided Africa among the imperialist powers.
6. The Occupation of Asia
Asia was occupied by Western European powers and other expansionist nations like Russia, the USA, and Japan. Britain, from its main colony in India, annexed Burma and clashed with Russia over Afghanistan. Later, they occupied Malaysia from Singapore. France focused on Indochina. All colonial powers sought a presence in the lucrative Chinese market and, through the Opium Wars, forced open trade and exploited its resources. This foreign invasion sparked social unrest, such as the Boxer Rebellion.
7. The British Empire
By the late 19th century, Britain commanded the world’s largest colonial empire, spanning from India to Africa. Their strategy focused on controlling maritime trade routes, securing bases in the Atlantic, Indian, Pacific, and Mediterranean. India, their primary colony, became a vast market for British goods and a source of cheap raw materials.
8. The French and Other Empires
France held the second-largest colonial empire, primarily in North Africa and Southeast Asia. Their rivalry with the British Empire was intense, especially in Africa. Other colonial powers included Russia, the Netherlands, Portugal, and, to a lesser extent, Germany, Italy, Belgium, and Spain.
9. United States and Japan
The U.S. and Japan were the only non-European powers to initiate colonial expansion in the late 19th century. The U.S. expanded into the Pacific and the Caribbean, quickly defeating Spain to acquire the Philippines, Cuba, Puerto Rico, and a strip of Panama for the transoceanic canal. Japan, with British backing, halted Russian expansion into Manchuria and occupied the Kurile Islands, Korea, and Formosa.
10. Introduction of European Advances in Colonies
Colonial powers introduced some advancements in their territories, building infrastructure like ports, roads, railways, and communication lines, primarily for their own benefit. They expanded cultivation and established industries, but mainly for their own gain. Hygienic measures and hospitals reduced epidemics and mortality, leading to population growth. However, this growth often strained resources, causing malnutrition. Schools were established, but they primarily focused on the language, culture, and customs of the colonizer, aiming for acculturation.
11. Economic Changes
Colonial economies prioritized the interests of the colonists, who held privileged positions. Indigenous populations were often subjected to harsher conditions. Land was seized, traditional crops were replaced with cash crops (cocoa, coffee, cotton, rubber, etc.) for the benefit of the metropolis, and a monetary market economy was imposed. Local crafts declined due to competition from cheap imported industrial goods.
12. Social and Cultural Change
Colonial social structures reflected deep segregation. European officials and settlers lived luxuriously, contrasting sharply with the poverty of indigenous villages. Acculturation, the imposition of Western culture, led to the erosion of indigenous traditions, particularly in Africa. In some regions, like South Africa, legal segregation was enforced.
13. Root Causes of World War I
- Radical Nationalism: Created a climate of international contempt.
- Colonial Allocation: Fueled tensions, particularly between Germany and Britain.
- Arms Race: Created an atmosphere of militarism and paranoia.
14. Proximate Cause of World War I
- Balkan Wars: Led to the decline of the Ottoman Empire and the Bosnian crisis between Serbia and Austria.
- System of Secret Alliances: The Triple Entente (Great Britain, France, Russia) and the Triple Alliance (Germany, Italy, Austria-Hungary) heightened tensions and created a complex web of commitments.
15. Recent or Immediate Causes of World War I
- Franco-German Dispute over Alsace-Lorraine
- Serbo-Austrian Dispute over Bosnia: Culminated in the assassination in Sarajevo, triggering Austria’s declaration of war against Serbia.
16. Phases of World War I
1st Phase: Great Movement (1914-1915)
- German advance on both fronts
- Battle of the Marne (France)
- Battles of Tannenberg and Masurian Lakes (Russia)
2nd Phase: Stalemate (1915-1917)
- Trench warfare
- Battle of Verdun (1916)
3rd Phase: Crisis and Turning Point
- Russia’s withdrawal following the October Revolution (1917)
- Entry of the U.S. and Italy into the war on the Allied side (1916)
17. The Treaty of Versailles
The Treaty of Versailles, the most important peace treaty with Germany, imposed harsh conditions:
- Woodrow Wilson: Advocated for lasting peace without humiliating Germany, proposed the Fourteen Points, and championed the creation of the League of Nations.
- David Lloyd George (Great Britain): Focused on protecting British colonial interests and seizing German colonies.
- Georges Clemenceau (France): Sought revenge, the return of Alsace-Lorraine, reparations payments, and the dismantling of the German army.
18. A New Map of Europe
- The Ottoman Empire was largely dissolved, leaving only Turkey. British and French protectorates were established in the former Ottoman territories of Iraq, Syria, and Palestine.
- The Austro-Hungarian Empire collapsed, giving rise to Czechoslovakia, Hungary, and Austria. Serbia expanded to become the head of the new state of Yugoslavia.