European Maritime Expansion and Societal Changes: 15th-16th Centuries
During the Early Modern period, European expeditions explored many new parts of the world. At the beginning of the 15th century, Europeans had limited geographical knowledge. They knew very little about most of Africa, Europe, and the territories around the Mediterranean and Black Seas, India, China, and Japan.
Trade with the East
Exotic products from the Far East, such as silk and spices, were highly appreciated in medieval Europe. Merchants carried them along the Silk Road, a trade route that linked Constantinople to China. In 1453, the Turks conquered Constantinople, disrupting the Silk Road. Consequently, European merchants wanted to find other routes to the East.
Advances in Navigation
Important advances in navigation made it possible for European expeditions to travel long distances:
- Cartography: Portolan charts.
- Navigational instruments: Compass, astrolabe, quadrant, the log, and sandglass.
- Ship design: Caravel.
The Portuguese Expeditions
From the early 15th century, Portugal wanted to find a trade route to India. The Portuguese believed that, in this way, they could control the silk and spice trade with the Far East. Prince Henry the Navigator promoted this ambitious project. He created a school of navigators.
As a result of these expeditions, Portugal created a great maritime empire. It was defended by fortified trading posts, called factories, which controlled trade and guaranteed supplies for the Portuguese fleets.
The Discovery of America
Christopher Columbus presented his project to the Catholic Monarchs, who agreed to finance a Castilian expedition. On August 3, 1492, Columbus’s three ships left the port of Palos de la Frontera in Huelva. Columbus’s expedition finally reached land on October 12, 1492. He was convinced that he had reached Asia. However, Amerigo Vespucci proved that the lands were part of a new continent, which was named America in his honor.
The Beginning of the Overseas Empires
The Treaty of Tordesillas (1494) established that the line of division between Castilian and Portuguese territories would be along a meridian about 2000 km west of the Azores. All the territories east of this meridian belonged to Portugal and all the land west of this line belonged to Castilla. The expeditions marked the beginnings of Castilla and Portugal’s great overseas empires. They were the start of European domination throughout the world.
The First Voyage Around the World
In 1519, an expedition of five ships left Seville under its captain, Ferdinand Magellan. Their goal was to find a route from the Atlantic Ocean to the Maluku Islands in the Pacific Ocean. These were known as the “spice islands”. Following Magellan’s death, Juan Sebastián Elcano was in charge of the return journey. This expedition completed the first journey around the world and showed that the Earth was round.
Demographic Recovery
In the 14th century, there was a demographic crisis in Europe as a result of wars, poor harvests, and the impact of a terrible epidemic called the Black Death. However, in the 15th century, Europe’s population began to grow again. There were fewer epidemics and improvements in agriculture.
Society
Society was divided into three estates: the nobility, the clergy, and the rest of the population. However, there were significant changes:
- The nobles and the clergy still had many privileges.
- The bourgeoisie became more prominent.
- Less wealthy merchants and craftsmen came into conflict with the nobility and bourgeoisie over their role in city government.
- Peasants still had a hard life. However, in most parts of Europe, they were free from their feudal lords.
The Economy
The 15th and 16th centuries were a period of economic growth:
- Both regional and international trade increased greatly. The voyages of discovery created new trade routes.
- Many cities grew rapidly, especially those with ports and craft industries. Many of the most important centers of economic activity were now in north-west Europe, and not around the Mediterranean Sea.
- Private banks played an important role in international finance. Famous banking families included the Medici in Italy and the Fuggers in Germany.
- The first public bank was founded in Barcelona in 1401. Bankers gave merchants credit and popularized the use of cheques and bills of exchange.
- Large capital investments were required for the long-distance trade routes to America and Asia. Merchants formed trading companies to share the profits and the losses.