European Powers & International Relations in the Early 20th Century
1. The Great European Powers
1.1 The Democratic Powers
Great Britain
Great Britain, a liberal monarchy reigned by Victoria I, was the most powerful, developed, prosperous, and influential country. Its political system was based on the alternation of power between the Tories (Conservatives) and Whigs (Liberals). By the end of the 1890s, the Whigs struggled to take power, and the Labor Party lost ground. The modernization process was based on reform laws, making the electoral system more participatory. In 1885, universal male suffrage was introduced. Education became mandatory from ages 6 to 13 and free in 1891.
France
Following the fall of Napoleon III, France became a Republic. The French Third Republic had two legislative chambers and a president with limited powers. It imposed political democratization: civil liberties, universal suffrage, election of mayors, and legalization of labor unions. It also achieved the secularization of the state and decreased the influence of the Church. Secular education became free and compulsory from 6 to 13 years old. In the late 19th century, two Republican parties consolidated: the moderate and the radical. In 1905, the French section of the Workers’ International was founded. The issue that most divided the population was the relationship with Germany, which had been troubled since the dispute over Alsace-Lorraine. One faction defended the need to reach agreements with Germany, while another believed reconciliation was impossible.
1.2 The German Reich
Once the political unification process was complete, Germany began creating a state based on a strong industrial foundation, aspiring to be the best in Europe. The Second Reich was forged under the leadership of Bismarck and Kaiser Wilhelm I. It possessed a federal territorial structure with an authoritarian political regime. It had two chambers: the upper house or Bundesrat (Federal Council) and the lower house or Reichstag, with deputies elected by census suffrage. The Kaiser could freely appoint ministers, who were responsible to him rather than the parliament. Political forces were conservative (representing the spirit of Prussia), progressive (trying to break through), and the German Social Democratic Party (representing workers). Pan-Germanism gained prominence, and in 1891, the Pan-German League was founded, calling for territorial expansion deemed necessary for the people. When Kaiser Wilhelm II came to power in 1888, he implemented a policy focused on global influence and supported the development of the navy and the creation of a war fleet. Military influence was one of the causes of German militarism.
1.3 The Old Empires
Russia under the Romanovs
Russia under the Romanovs is a clear example of autocracy. Its vast territory and immense demographic potential contrasted with a backward population due to the persistence of the seigneurial regime and the political hegemony of agricultural lords. Industrialization was late and limited to specific regions. The last of the tsars, Nicholas II, ruled based on absolute autocracy, although he accepted the creation of a representative assembly.
The Austro-Hungarian Empire
The Austro-Hungarian Empire was in a clear political stalemate. It lacked democratic institutions, the emperor held absolute power, and the landed aristocracy dominated. Following the 1867 reform, the Habsburg Empire became a dual monarchy dominated by a German minority in Austria and Hungary, which had a high degree of autonomy. The empire’s main problem was addressing the claims of its many subject nationalities.
2. International Relations in the Early 20th Century
2.1 The Formation of International Alliances
In the early 20th century, most European countries were part of a complex system of alliances forged since the late 1870s and 1880s. Bismarck promoted international partnerships with objectives such as: seeking German dominance in European politics, creating a power bloc with Germany at its center, containing Germany’s enemies, and isolating France to prevent revenge for Alsace-Lorraine after the defeat of 1870. With these objectives, Bismarck first promoted the League of the Three Emperors (1873), an alliance between Austria, Russia, and Germany. Austria and Germany signed the Dual Alliance in 1879, which was also secretly ratified with Russia in 1881. Finally, the Triple Alliance was signed between Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Italy in 1882. Russia, threatened by isolation, allied with France, which also sought the agreement to counter the Triple Alliance, signing the Franco-Russian Alliance (1892). Its clauses established mutual aid. Meanwhile, Great Britain and France overcame their differences and signed the Entente Cordiale in April 1904. Three years later, Britain established agreements with Russia. All this undermined Bismarck’s old idea of isolating France. With the arrival of William II, a policy called Weltpolitik was implemented, contrary to Bismarck’s. Thus, before the old Triple Alliance, the Triple Entente emerged in 1907, albeit more diffuse, and the sides of the Great War were profiled.
2.2 Colonial Confrontations
The Berlin Conference of 1885 attempted to establish arbitration agreements between empires, but conflicts erupted again at the beginning of the 20th century. Hostilities between rival imperialist powers focused on North Africa, one of the last regions to be divided. Germany, having arrived late to the colonial division, was not prepared to miss the opportunity. The First Moroccan Crisis (1905) saw Germany offer aid to Morocco to resist pressure to establish a French protectorate. The Algeciras Conference (1906) was called to resolve the conflict, but it frustrated German aspirations. Germany did not give up and in 1911, during the Second Moroccan Crisis, under the pretext of protecting German residents there during an insurrection, Germany sent warships to Agadir. It only managed to expand its colony in Cameroon in exchange for abandoning Morocco.
2.3 The Balkan Crises
The Balkan Crises consisted of the Austro-Hungarian Empire and the Russian Empire seeking to increase their influence within the declining Ottoman Empire. Austria-Hungary opposed the union of the Slavic countries, as it meant losing territories, while Russia aimed to increase its international role as protector of the Slavs, especially Serbia. In 1908, Austria-Hungary annexed Bosnia-Herzegovina, which it had administered since 1878. This provoked the wrath of Russia and gave rise to the Balkan Wars. The First Balkan War broke out in 1912 with the creation of the Balkan League (Serbia, Bulgaria, Greece, and Montenegro) to attack Turkey’s European territories. The Second Balkan War in 1913 pitted the Serbs against the Bulgarians. The Peace of Bucharest confirmed Bulgaria as the big loser, ceding various territories to other countries, especially Serbia.