European Powers & WWI: A Historical Overview
1. The Great European Powers
1.1 The Democratic Powers
Great Britain
Great Britain, a liberal monarchy reigned by Victoria I, was the most powerful, developed, prosperous, and influential country. Its political system was based on the alternation of power between the Tories (Conservatives) and Whigs (Liberals). By the end of the 1890s, the Whigs struggled to maintain power, and the Labor Party lost ground. The modernization process involved electoral reform laws, creating a more participatory system. In 1885, universal male suffrage was introduced. Education became mandatory from ages 6 to 13 and free in 1891.
France
Following the fall of Napoleon III, France became a Republic. The French Third Republic had two legislative chambers and a president. Political democratization was imposed, including civil liberties, universal suffrage, the election of mayors, and the legalization of labor unions. Secularization of the state reduced the Church’s influence. Secular education became free and compulsory from ages 6 to 13. Two Republican parties, the Moderate and Radical, consolidated in the late 19th century. In 1905, the French section of the Workers’ International was founded. The most divisive issue was the relationship with Germany, strained since the dispute over Alsace-Lorraine. One faction advocated for agreements with Germany, while another believed reconciliation was impossible.
1.2 The German Reich
After political unification, Germany focused on building an industrial base, aspiring to be the best in Europe. The Second Reich was forged under Bismarck and Kaiser Wilhelm I. It had a federal structure and an authoritarian political regime with two chambers: the Bundesrat (Federal Council) and the Reichstag (elected by census suffrage). The Kaiser appointed ministers, who were responsible to him, not the Reichstag. Political forces included Conservatives (representing Prussia), Progressives, and the emerging Social Democratic Party (workers). Pan-Germanism gained prominence, and the Pan-German League, founded in 1891, called for territorial expansion. Kaiser Wilhelm II, who came to power in 1888, pursued a global policy, focusing on naval development. Military influence contributed to German militarism.
1.3 The Old Empires
Romanov Russia
Russia exemplified autocracy. Its vast territory and demographic potential contrasted with a backward population due to the persistence of the seigneurial regime. Industrialization was late and limited. Tsar Nicholas II maintained absolute autocracy, despite accepting the creation of a representative assembly.
Austro-Hungarian Empire
The Austro-Hungarian Empire faced a political stalemate, lacking democratic institutions and ruled by an absolute emperor. The landed aristocracy held significant power. After the 1867 reform, the Habsburg empire became a dual monarchy dominated by a German minority, with Hungary having considerable autonomy. The empire struggled to address the claims of its many subject nationalities.
5. The Consequences of War
5.1 Demographic and Economic Impact
Nearly 8 million people died, with 6 million disabled. Many also died from hunger, poor hygiene, and the 1918 flu pandemic. Mortality primarily affected men aged 20-40, causing a decline in birth rates. World War I marked the end of European economic hegemony. France lost 30% and Germany 22% of their industrial output. Agricultural output fell by 30%. In 1918, Europe faced a dire economic situation, burdened by internal and external debts. The USA benefited most, becoming a leader in global finance. Japan also benefited, increasing production and expanding its markets.
5.2 Territorial and Political Consequences
The Peace of Paris led to European territorial restructuring, the dismemberment of empires, and the emergence of new states (Poland, Finland, etc.). Traditional dynasties were overthrown: the Romanovs in Russia (1917), Habsburgs in Austria (1918), and Hohenzollerns in Germany (1918). The Ottoman sultanate was abolished. Democracy gained ground in Germany, Austria, and new countries like Czechoslovakia and Hungary. Universal male suffrage was implemented across most of Europe, and women’s suffrage in many countries.
5.3 Social Changes
The war disrupted social fabrics. New wealth emerged from war-related businesses, while poverty affected those with fixed incomes. European colonial hegemony faced challenges, with nationalist demonstrations spreading in colonies. Women’s roles changed significantly, comprising 35% of the industrial workforce in Germany and Britain by war’s end. Shorter, more comfortable dresses became common, and women were increasingly seen driving and expressing their ideas freely.