European Revolutions of 1848: Causes and Development
The European Revolutions of 1848: Causes and Development
The revolutions of 1848 were the first of a modern character. The former had seen the union of the bourgeoisie, the peasantry, and even other intermediate groups against the privileged groups. However, 1848 represented a clear clash between the interests of the bourgeoisie and the proletariat of the Industrial Revolution.
It seems clear that in many cases, these revolutions were a continuation of the movements of the 1830s, as with the Belgians, where problems remained unsolved. In France, the big bourgeoisie, allied with the Orleanist monarchy, had betrayed other social groups. In the Italian area, German nationalist ideas and the modernization of the states were left unresolved. Democratic ideals clashed with the doctrinaire liberalism that had led the fight in Europe for eighteen years prior. Previously, they called for the vote, which ended up being restricted. In 1848, they called for universal suffrage based on social equality and the abolition of the monopoly power of the bourgeoisie. In the 1830s, constitutions reflected national sovereignty (as in the French or Belgian cases). Now, they spoke of popular sovereignty, differentiating between the people, who are all citizens, and the nation, which favored a few. Faced with the freedom of the press, they now talked of an independent press. It was not enough that there was no censorship; it was important that the bourgeoisie did not control it, that it was truly free. In the previous revolutionary process, equal justice was imposed. Now, they called for social justice, a concept very different from before. To summarize, the differences outweighed the similarities, and the causes must be analyzed in depth. The Western European crisis of 1847, both agricultural and industrial, is one of the important factors to take into account, as it caused a widespread crisis and enormous unemployment. A climate of economic insecurity and mistrust in government was created. Therefore, the movement of 1848 was the conjunction of economic crisis and political unrest.
Development of the 1848 Revolutions
The strong French industrialization, starting in 1830, had enriched the bourgeoisie at the expense of the exploitation of the proletariat. It is no wonder that under these conditions, a reform movement in favor of revolutionary violence appeared in France among workers, trying to achieve a dignified life. The economic crisis and the misery of the masses, along with the constitutional demands of the petty bourgeoisie, triggered various riots in February 1848. The king fled to England without trying to resist the revolution. This time, the Republicans did not let power be juggled, as it had been in 1830. A government was formed in a strange alliance between moderate liberals, like Lamartine, and socialists, like Louis Blanc. In addition to the surprising fact that a worker participated in the government, national workshops were created to try to alleviate unemployment in the Paris area. Working hours were limited, universal suffrage was established, absolute freedom of the press and association was granted, the death penalty for political crimes was abolished, as was slavery in the colonies and imprisonment for debt.
These perspectives, however, lasted a short time. The tragic social and financial reality dissipated them. The Revolution increased the economic crisis. Members of the provisional government were incompetent in financial matters. The rich pulled their money from banks, and many companies went bankrupt. The new spending, especially on the National Workshops, put the state on the brink of bankruptcy. The victory for the moderates in April resulted in a National Assembly that announced the dissolution of the National Workshops, causing the insurgents to rise up. Against the insurgents, the National Guard fought with as much ardor as the army against the “perpetual rebels refusing to bow to universal suffrage.” After the events of June, the “social republic” was lost. The Assembly created a Constitution that, in view of past events, established a strong, but not permanent, executive power, given to the President of the Republic, elected by universal suffrage, independent of the Assembly, but not re-elected. It kept the political balance of February: legislative power resided in an assembly elected by universal suffrage.
Once the Constitution was approved, Louis Napoleon Bonaparte was elected President. He obtained the support of the peasants, fearful of losing their property, and the large financial and industrial sectors. He established a conservative republic, ending with a coup d’état in 1851, supported by the army. Napoleon was crowned emperor, inaugurating a period of personal power until 1870.